tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-29263240946765953382024-03-05T09:58:44.588-08:00mesulinemisacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.comBlogger106125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-62009188658734999852009-03-27T01:40:00.000-07:002009-03-27T01:45:50.940-07:00Rock Lee cosplay<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2XUWnhcnwgGeLkH7rxdxJf_FzV-QF5LJScDM2XTijbZwy9f7lI_MJz2JO6IliKm7FvOgHN3xBLxKyjEPNfdFOC754254wH73vmdDsldFdeFydn5IrUGxm6OwAElmqlikVBm48cjwMCFKV/s1600-h/2351888668_e5218f971c_o.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 240px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2XUWnhcnwgGeLkH7rxdxJf_FzV-QF5LJScDM2XTijbZwy9f7lI_MJz2JO6IliKm7FvOgHN3xBLxKyjEPNfdFOC754254wH73vmdDsldFdeFydn5IrUGxm6OwAElmqlikVBm48cjwMCFKV/s320/2351888668_e5218f971c_o.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5317785250700333394" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQFZ1wkWw9Xtn1ZEg7fVPsY2IaIt15BqW8IWzu8VKYEHf4L6shUxDkEtFOaG27DM1fB2E0yo3umVc59A419Hwz0Sj-Sfek8Mu2t4Ftj50XknnaGOGewPFpsRqFHvHCqYIExSfCUxvmlgK8/s1600-h/501560528_56100b7794_b.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 240px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQFZ1wkWw9Xtn1ZEg7fVPsY2IaIt15BqW8IWzu8VKYEHf4L6shUxDkEtFOaG27DM1fB2E0yo3umVc59A419Hwz0Sj-Sfek8Mu2t4Ftj50XknnaGOGewPFpsRqFHvHCqYIExSfCUxvmlgK8/s320/501560528_56100b7794_b.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5317785097794124546" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOhlCEiMtc8GUaegWe-zXeiiUuhNZIkTKNBUtH6HRVpVR4iohfg6GdgF1PB7_sfStbQwNHLvsuDIiDrVeRdKn6oGU4cw6q-jdsWAWc8k8eOb_9m6qCEJiimpyQv-Eo8-7Qkr2l_L7LHTiN/s1600-h/DSC_6287-cosplay-rock-lee.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 318px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOhlCEiMtc8GUaegWe-zXeiiUuhNZIkTKNBUtH6HRVpVR4iohfg6GdgF1PB7_sfStbQwNHLvsuDIiDrVeRdKn6oGU4cw6q-jdsWAWc8k8eOb_9m6qCEJiimpyQv-Eo8-7Qkr2l_L7LHTiN/s320/DSC_6287-cosplay-rock-lee.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5317784796074533234" /></a><br /><br />very intersting <a href="http://www.cosplayfu.com/Search.php">rock lee</a> cosplaymisacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-12403635283258133062007-12-06T07:22:00.001-08:002007-12-06T07:22:12.476-08:00 <b></b><br /> A <b>Darwin Award</b> is a <span href="/wiki/Tongue-in-cheek" title="Tongue-in-cheek">tongue-in-cheek</span> honor named after <span href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</span> <span href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theorist</span> <span href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</span>. "Awards" have been given for people who "remove themselves from the Gene pool" i.e. lose the ability to reproduce as early as <span href="/wiki/1863" title="1863">1863</span>. It is for people who kill, or in rare cases, sterilize themselves accidentally by attempting to do stupid <span href="/wiki/Stunt" title="Stunt">feats</span>. As described in the Darwin Award books: <i>The Awards honour people who ensure the long-term survival of the <span href="/wiki/Human_race" title="Human race">human race</span> by removing themselves from the <span href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pool</span> in a sublimely idiotic fashion.</i> While an attempt is made to disallow <span href="/wiki/Urban_legends" title="Urban legends">urban legends</span> from the awards, some older winners have been '<span href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfathered</span>' to keep their awards.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <b> Requirements</b><br /> Examples of Darwin award winners include<br /> Northcutt's Darwin Awards site gives "Honorable Mentions" to people who manage to survive their misadventures with their reproductive capacity intact. One notable example is <span href="/wiki/Larry_Walters" title="Larry Walters">Lawnchair Larry</span>, who attached <span href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</span> filled <span href="/wiki/Weather_balloon" title="Weather balloon">weather balloons</span> to a lawn chair and floated far above Long Beach, California, in <span href="/wiki/July_1982" title="July 1982">July 1982</span>.<br /> <span name="Special_Winners" id="Special_Winners"></span><br /> juggling active <span href="/wiki/Hand_grenade" title="Hand grenade">hand grenades</span> (<span href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</span>, <span href="/wiki/2001" title="2001">2001</span>), <img src="http://www.britishblogs.co.uk/images/194474.jpg" alt="Darwin Awards" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Examples</b><br /> Each year, one award is selected as being much more "honourable" than the rest, and it is crowned as the "Darwin Award of the Year" or "[year] Darwin Award Winner".<br /> <span name="Books" id="Books"></span><br /> <b> Special Winners</b><br /> <span name="Movie" id="Movie"></span><br /> <b>2000:</b> Darwin Awards: Evolution in Action, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0525945725" class="internal">ISBN 0-525-94572-5</span> & <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0452283442" class="internal">ISBN 0-452-28344-2</span><br /> <b>2001:</b> Darwin Awards II: Unnatural Selection, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0525946233" class="internal">ISBN 0-525-94623-3</span> & <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0452284015" class="internal">ISBN 0-452-28401-5</span><br /> <b>2003:</b> Darwin Awards III: Survival of the Fittest, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0525947736" class="internal">ISBN 0-525-94773-6</span> & <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0452285720" class="internal">ISBN 0-452-28572-0</span><br /> <b>2006:</b> Darwin Awards IV: Intelligent Design, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0525949607" class="internal">ISBN 0-525-94960-7</span> <b> Movie</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_inventions" title="List of inventors killed by their own inventions">List of inventors killed by their own inventions</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ig_Nobel_Prize" title="Ig Nobel Prize">Ig Nobel Prize</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/McCandless_Phenomenon" title="McCandless Phenomenon">McCandless Phenomenon</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Everett_Ruess" title="Everett Ruess">Everett Ruess</span> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-27305887324307406532007-12-05T08:32:00.001-08:002007-12-05T08:32:34.654-08:00<img src="http://www.ibero-americana.net/de/grafik/covers/cover-520041.jpg" alt="Artes mechanicae" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>Artes Mechanicae</b> (mechanical arts) are a medieval concept juxtaposed to the seven <span href="/wiki/Artes_liberales" title="Artes liberales">Artes liberales</span>. Already <span href="/wiki/Johannes_Scotus_Eriugena" title="Johannes Scotus Eriugena">Johannes Scotus Eriugena</span> (9th century) divides them somewhat arbitrarily into seven parts,<br /> <i>vestiaria</i> (<span href="/wiki/Tailor" title="Tailor">tailoring</span>, <span href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</span>), <i>agricultura</i> (<span href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</span>), <i>architectura</i> (<span href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</span>, <span href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</span>), <i>militia</i> and <i>venatoria</i> (<span href="/wiki/War" title="War">warfare</span> and <span href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</span>, "<span href="/wiki/Martial_arts" title="Martial arts">martial arts</span>"), <i>mercatura</i> (<span href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</span>, <span href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</span>), <i>coquinaria</i> (<span href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooking</span>), <i>metallaria</i> (<span href="/wiki/Blacksmithing" title="Blacksmithing">blacksmithing</span>, <span href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Hugh_of_St_Victor" title="Hugh of St Victor">Hugh of St Victor</span> includes <span href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</span>, <span href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</span> and <span href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatrical arts</span> instead of commerce, agriculture and cooking.<br /> The classification of the Artes Mechanicae as applied <span href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</span> was introduced to Western Europe by <span href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</span> under the influence of his readings in Arabic scholarship.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-2208685831459586122007-12-04T11:25:00.001-08:002007-12-04T11:25:15.507-08:00<img src="http://www.brownandcompany.co.uk/promotionals/logistics.jpg" alt="Ketley" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>Ketley</b> is a suburb of the new town of <span href="/wiki/Telford" title="Telford">Telford</span> in the borough of <span href="/wiki/Telford_and_Wrekin" title="Telford and Wrekin">Telford and Wrekin</span> and <span href="/wiki/Ceremonial_county" title="Ceremonial county">ceremonial county</span> of <span href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</span>, <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span>. East Ketley is currently being re-developed as part of the <span href="/wiki/Telford_Millennium_Community" title="Telford Millennium Community">Telford Millennium Community</span>, part of the <span href="/wiki/Millennium_Communities_Programme" title="Millennium Communities Programme">Millennium Communities Programme</span>. It will consist of around 750 new homes and some live/work units, a new primary school, some small offices and retail and leisure services.<br /> The site is currently home to a terrace of Victorian houses amid old mineshafts, colliery spoil, a golf course (which was later used as a driving range) and playing fields. Most of the site has been left fallow for many years and some areas have become locally important habitats for wildlife. Ketley was formally the home of Ketley Iron works. William Reynolds (the ironmaster of said works in the late 18th century) undertook to construct three tub boat canals. The <span href="/w/index.php?title=Wombridge_Canal&action=edit" class="new" title="Wombridge Canal">Wombridge Canal</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Ketley_Canal" title="Ketley Canal">Ketley Canal</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Shropshire_Canal" title="Shropshire Canal">Shropshire Canal</span>.<br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-89105474006003739602007-12-03T08:43:00.001-08:002007-12-03T08:43:51.694-08:00 <b> Details</b><br /> On 5 and 9 July 1941 he ordered the machine gunning of survivors of attacks by HMS Torbay.<br /> <span name="Further_information" id="Further_information"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.nationalcenter.org/uploaded_images/WPostMiers102605S-728547.jpg" alt="Anthony Miers" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Further information</b><br /> His Victoria Cross is displayed at the <span href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum" title="Imperial War Museum">Imperial War Museum</span> <i>(London, England)</i>.<br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-1060914643489785312007-12-02T07:46:00.001-08:002007-12-02T07:46:38.653-08:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Homewood</b> is a village in <span href="/wiki/Cook_County%2C_Illinois" title="Cook County, Illinois">Cook County</span>, <span href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</span>, <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>. The population was 19,543 at the <span href="/wiki/2000" title="2000">2000</span> census.<br /> <span name="Geography" id="Geography"></span><br /> <b> Geography</b><br /> As of the <span href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</span> of 2000, there were 19,543 people, 7,552 households, and 5,256 families residing in the village. The <span href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</span> was 1,451.1/km² (3,755.5/mi²). There were 7,827 housing units at an average density of 581.2/km² (1,504.1/mi²). The racial makeup of the village was 78.14% <span href="/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29" title="White (U.S. Census)">White</span>, 17.51% <span href="/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29" title="African American (U.S. Census)">African American</span>, 0.10% <span href="/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Native American (U.S. Census)">Native American</span>, 1.57% <span href="/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Asian (U.S. Census)">Asian</span>, 0.07% <span href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)">Pacific Islander</span>, 1.06% from <span href="/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29" title="Race (United States Census)">other races</span>, and 100% from two or more races. <span href="/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Hispanic (U.S. Census)">Hispanic</span> or <span href="/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29" title="Latino (U.S. Census)">Latino</span> of any race were 3.05% of the population.<br /> There were 7,552 households out of which 35.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.7% were <span href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">married couples</span> living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.4% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.14.<br /> In the village the population was spread out with 27.1% under the age of 18, 5.4% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 85.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.3 males.<br /> The median income for a household in the village was $57,213, and the median income for a family was $70,941. Males had a median income of $50,689 versus $35,978 for females. The <span href="/wiki/Per_capita_income" title="Per capita income">per capita income</span> for the village was $26,074. About 3.2% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the <span href="/wiki/Poverty_line" title="Poverty line">poverty line</span>, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.<br /> <span name="Government" id="Government"></span><br /> <b> Demographics</b><br /> Homewood is in <span href="/wiki/Illinois%27_2nd_congressional_district" title="Illinois' 2nd congressional district">Illinois' 2nd congressional district</span>.<br /> <span name="Early_history_.28pre-1945.29" id="Early_history_.28pre-1945.29"></span><br /> <b> Government</b><br /> The village of Homewood is located in the south suburbs of <span href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</span>. Although some of the southern suburbs have fallen victim to urban poverty and blight, due to <span href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">gentrification</span> in Chicago, Homewood and its neighboring community of <span href="/wiki/Flossmoor%2C_Illinois" title="Flossmoor, Illinois">Flossmoor</span> have withstood these pressures and remain communities for the middle class and moderately wealthy, due to the strength and excellence of their educational systems.<br /> Homewood sits on the edge of Lake Chicago, which was formed by a retreating glacier long before <span href="/wiki/Lake_Michigan" title="Lake Michigan">Lake Michigan</span>. Of one the main east-west roads through the town, Ridge Road, got its name because it runs along what used to be the ridge of the lake. The area is rich in <span href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</span> deposits, and neighbors <span href="/wiki/Thornton_Quarry" title="Thornton Quarry">Thornton Quarry</span>. In its beginning, the area featured excellent topsoil making it an appealing place for farmers to settle.<br /> James and Sally Hart were the first confirmed settlers in the area in <span href="/wiki/1834" title="1834">1834</span>. They were <span href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New Englanders</span>, as were the families that immediately followed them; the Butterfields, the Campbells, the Clarks, and the Hoods. In <span href="/wiki/1839" title="1839">1839</span>, <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</span> and <span href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</span> families began to move into the area as well. The town began to use the name of Hartford.<br /> The first store in Homewood was Hasting's General Store; Dr. William Doepp was its first doctor. Attracted by the country life after his Chicago practice was burned down, he moved to the area in <span href="/wiki/1851" title="1851">1851</span>. His practice extended from <span href="/wiki/Crown_Point%2C_Indiana" title="Crown Point, Indiana">Crown Point, Indiana</span> to <span href="/wiki/New_Lenox%2C_Illinois" title="New Lenox, Illinois">New Lenox, Illinois</span>, and he was required to keep two teams of <span href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</span> in order to make all his calls.<br /> In <span href="/wiki/1853" title="1853">1853</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Illinois_Central_Railroad" title="Illinois Central Railroad">Illinois Central Railroad</span> (IC) established a station in Hartford, calling it Thornton Station, as most of the passengers came from nearby Thornton. This began a serious period of confusion, as mail for the two separate towns was regularly mixed up. In <span href="/wiki/1869" title="1869">1869</span>, settlers petitioned the post office to be renamed as Homewood, after the woods that the residents lived among.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/1870s" title="1870s">1870s</span> brought a new era to Homewood, ushered in by trains and by the crowded conditions of the city. <span href="/wiki/Country_club" title="Country club">Country clubs</span> such as the Homewood Country Club (later changed to Flossmoor Country Club), Dixmoor, Ravisloe, Idlewild and Calumet brought in trains just for golfers. The IC established the Calumet station specifically for their convenience. Wealthy families impressed by the area, and ease of getting to the city, established residences in the area, as permanent or summer homes.<br /> At the beginning of the <span href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">twentieth century</span>, it was determined that the small two-room schoolhouse that had been built in the <span href="/wiki/1880s" title="1880s">1880s</span> was inadequate. The Standard school was built in <span href="/wiki/1904" title="1904">1904</span> on Dixie Highway and Hickory for a cost of fourteen thousand dollars. It had four classrooms, two cloakrooms, a tiny office, attic and basement storage. It provided the community with a variety of entertainments in the form of <span href="/wiki/Spelling_bee" title="Spelling bee">spelling bees</span>, box socials, school entertainment, and a play festival. As many of the children were expected to become farmers, garden and corn clubs were established. Nearby land was turned into gardening plots, but a dry season kept the project from being successful. However, one student, Elizabeth Szanyi made a total of fifty-nine dollars from her produce patch.<br /> Enrollment for the schools continued to grow, and in <span href="/wiki/1914" title="1914">1914</span> the school was forced to convert the cloakrooms into classrooms. In <span href="/wiki/1918" title="1918">1918</span>, a nearby residence, the Zimmer house, was rented to house primary grades. In <span href="/wiki/1923" title="1923">1923</span>, construction on Central school began. The new school had three more classrooms, an assembly hall, a teacher's room, and a room for health services. By <span href="/wiki/1928" title="1928">1928</span>, there were enough students in the district to make a kindergarten class feasible, and extensive additions were made to the school. These renovations included eight new classrooms and a <span href="/wiki/Gym" title="Gym">gymnasium</span>-<span href="/wiki/Auditorium" title="Auditorium">auditorium</span>.<br /> In the <span href="/wiki/1920s" title="1920s">1920s</span>, Homewood became an important railroad depot, and many IC workers and their families moved to the area. Automobiles became a common sight on the streets of downtown. As traffic in the area continued to increase, village officials decided to install the town's first manually operated traffic signal at the corner of Ridge Road and Dixie Highway. This period marks the change from Homewood as a farming community to Homewood as a suburb, as families began to use stores and businesses to supply their needs. The population of town increased from seven hundred and thirteen (730) to fifteen hundred and ninety-three (1593). Thirteen housing developments were recorded in Homewood from <span href="/wiki/1905" title="1905">1905</span> to <span href="/wiki/1930" title="1930">1930</span>.<br /> With the crash of the stock market in <span href="/wiki/1929" title="1929">1929</span>, life in Homewood changed dramatically. People who worked in factories in <span href="/wiki/Harvey%2C_Illinois" title="Harvey, Illinois">Harvey</span> and <span href="/wiki/Chicago_Heights%2C_Illinois" title="Chicago Heights, Illinois">Chicago Heights</span> lost their jobs, and many almost lost their homes. The Homewood State Bank was closed in the spring of <span href="/wiki/1932" title="1932">1932</span>. Optimistic residents who had invested money in the bank until the day before it closed lost everything they had. The flood of trains to and from the city trickled down to three or four trains daily. Those people trying to make an income by <span href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bootleg" class="external text" title="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bootleg" rel="nofollow">bootlegging</span> were raided, and shut down. Transients were common, and the police officers gave them a place to stay at night, a cup of coffee and a donut before they left in the morning. In 1932 alone, the jail housed twelve hundred and twenty-four people (1224). The schools, which had already been operating in the red, scraped through by cutting programs and by the determined efforts of the PTA, which opened a thrift shop as a fundraiser. The village was reduced to issuing <span href="/wiki/Scrip" title="Scrip">scrip</span> notes to its employees that could not be honored by local business; however, a rental of a large parcel of land by the Illinois Jockey Association ended this problem.<br /> As the factories slowly began to reopen, the city began to tear down old buildings and replace them with new businesses. The most important of these was the Homewood Theater. At its "typical Hollywood opening" it was said, "bright lights will flood the sky, bands will blare, and the theatre will be officially presented to Mayor Fred Borgwordt of the town of Homewood." The opening picture was "<span href="/wiki/Double_or_Nothing_%28film%29" title="Double or Nothing (film)">Double or Nothing</span>" with <span href="/wiki/Bing_Crosby" title="Bing Crosby">Bing Crosby</span> and <span href="/wiki/Martha_Raye" title="Martha Raye">Martha Raye</span>. The theater seemed to symbolize the return of hope to the city, and remained an important landmark for many years. In <span href="/wiki/1983" title="1983">1983</span>, <span href="/wiki/Richard_Haas" title="Richard Haas">Richard Haas</span> painted a mural on the backs of several buildings in the business district, matching their fronts to their backs. Most famous among these was on the back of the Homewood Theater, depicting it with three young women waiting to view <i><span href="/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life" title="It's a Wonderful Life">It's a Wonderful Life</span></i>. It was demolished in <span href="/wiki/1992" title="1992">1992</span>, despite the comparison made by a local student of "throwing away the Mona Lisa just because the frame is broken."<br /> <span name="Recent_history_.281945-_.29" id="Recent_history_.281945-_.29"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.graycor.com/about-us/images/shared/g_pic_1990s_2.jpg" alt="Homewood, Illinois" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Early history (pre-1945)</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</span> brought a time of great change to the area, although life in the village during the war was about the same as life anywhere. The number of Homewood men who entered the service is unknown, but the village maintains a complete list of the men who died and the circumstances of their death. After the war, the veterans returned home to a rapidly growing Homewood. The desire of young couples to own a home of their own provided for a phenomenal growth and development of suburbs everywhere. To reflect these changes, the school board expanded the schools once again. In <span href="/wiki/1948" title="1948">1948</span>, ground was broken for the new Ridge school, which was located immediately west of the Central school. It was immediately followed by the construction of Willow school, in <span href="/wiki/1953" title="1953">1953</span>. In <span href="/wiki/1958" title="1958">1958</span>, a junior high school was built and named after the area's first settler James Hart.<br /> At the same time as the grade school expansion, a group of residents in Homewood and the neighboring community of <span href="/wiki/Flossmoor%2C_Illinois" title="Flossmoor, Illinois">Flossmoor</span> worked to bring about a long time dream of having a local high school, instead of sending students to Thornton, Bloom, Rich or Bremen Township High Schools. <span href="/wiki/Homewood-Flossmoor_High_School" title="Homewood-Flossmoor High School">Homewood-Flossmoor High School</span> opened its doors in <span href="/wiki/1959" title="1959">1959</span>. Almost immediately afterward, in <span href="/wiki/1962" title="1962">1962</span> and 1966, large additions were made to the school. The student body grew so large that students were taught on half-day schedules until a second building to house them could be built in <span href="/wiki/1974" title="1974">1974</span>.<br /> The businesses of the area boomed, with the building of Westgate shopping center, Ridge-Mar shopping center, Northgate shopping center, Cherry Creek, Washington Square Plaza, Southgate Shopping Center and the West Homewood Commons. Washington Square Plaza was torn down in the <span href="/wiki/1990s" title="1990s">nineties</span>. A recent boom in business along <span href="/wiki/Halsted_Street" title="Halsted Street">Halsted Street</span> (<span href="/wiki/Illinois_Route_1" title="Illinois Route 1">Illinois Route 1</span>) has provided Homewood-area residents with a large number of chain stores. The downtown area has also been on the rise, with new stores moving in, and the recent announcement of the Chestnut Square development along Harwood Avenue at Chestnut Road, behind the village hall.<br /> In <span href="/wiki/1981" title="1981">1981</span>, the first Homewood Fine Art Fair was held in the center of the Village, on Ridge Road. Founder Barbara D. Smith (Homewood's first female Chamber of Commerce President) spent two years learning the recruiting, organizational and judging processes from a variety of experts, and ushered it through its first five years. The official portrait artist of Princess Grace of Monaco -- Mohamed Drisi -- observed the fair's progress for the first two years, after which he volunteered to bolster the status of the institution. The HFAF continues to be held each June in Marie Irwin Park, and is considered a backbone of the south suburban art scene. Not without controversy, Ms. Smith has expressed her concern at deviating from the original vision of "fine art only", and has been critical of what she terms downgrading to arts and crafts from juried fine art. Still, a testament to this new tradition is underscored by the fact that some of the original juried artists she procured continue to exhibit.<br /> In <span href="/wiki/1993" title="1993">1993</span>, Homewood celebrated its centennial. Summer saw scores of festivals, parades, and a play celebrating the history of Homewood.<br /> <span name="Education" id="Education"></span><br /> <b> Recent history (1945- )</b><br /> Children in grades K-8 attend schools under the jurisdiction of Homewood public school district 153. School District 153 has four schools: Winston Churchill Elementary, Willow Elementary, Millenium School, and James Hart Junior High School. Children in grades K-2 attend Willow, then move on to Churchill for grades 3 and 4, then move on to Millenium for grades 5 and 6, and finish up grades 7 and 8 at James Hart.<br /> The majority of students in the area then go on to attend the local public high school, <span href="/wiki/Homewood-Flossmoor_High_School" title="Homewood-Flossmoor High School">Homewood-Flossmoor High School</span>. Homewood-Flossmoor High School is its own school district, school district 233. H-F is a twenty-time winner of the U.S. Department of Education's Blue Ribbon Award for excellence.<br /> The most common destination for students after high school is the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</span>. About 10 percent of H-F's graduating class goes there every year.<br /> <span name="Rail_transportation" id="Rail_transportation"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-75648686809113364532007-12-01T10:06:00.001-08:002007-12-01T10:06:08.086-08:00 <b></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Ramses_II_at_Kadesh.jpg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ramses_II_at_Kadesh.jpg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Ramses_II_at_Kadesh.jpg/65px-Ramses_II_at_Kadesh.jpg" width="65" height="80" /></span><span href="/wiki/Image:Gustavus_Adolphus_at_the_Battle_at_Breitenfeld.jpg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gustavus_Adolphus_at_the_Battle_at_Breitenfeld.jpg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gustavus_Adolphus_at_the_Battle_at_Breitenfeld.jpg/63px-Gustavus_Adolphus_at_the_Battle_at_Breitenfeld.jpg" width="63" height="80" /></span><span href="/wiki/Image:M1A1_abrams_front.jpg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:M1A1_abrams_front.jpg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/M1A1_abrams_front.jpg/85px-M1A1_abrams_front.jpg" width="85" height="80" /></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</span> · <span href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerilla</span> · <span href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</span> <span href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</span> · <span href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</span> · <span href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</span> · <span href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand</span> · <span href="/wiki/Operational_warfare" title="Operational warfare">Operational</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Formation_%28military%29" title="Formation (military)">Formations</span> · <span href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</span> · <span href="/wiki/Military_unit" title="Military unit">Units</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Military_equipment" title="Military equipment">Equipment</span> · <span href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</span> · <span href="/wiki/Supply_line" title="Supply line">Supply line</span><br /> <b>Military history</b> is composed of the events in the <span href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">history of humanity</span> that fall within the category of <span href="/wiki/Conflict" title="Conflict">conflict</span>. This may range from a melee between two <span href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribes</span> to conflicts between proper <span href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">militaries</span> to a <span href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world war</span> affecting the majority of the <span href="/wiki/Human_population" title="Human population">human population</span>. Military historians record (in writing or otherwise) the events of military history.<br /> Military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years. However, there is little agreement about when it began (Otterbein 2004). Some believe it has always been with us; others stress the lack of clear evidence for it in our prehistoric past, and the fact that many peaceful, non-military societies have and still do exist (See Otterbein, Fry and Kelly in bibliography below).<br /> The essential <span href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">tactics</span>, <span href="/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">strategy</span>, and goals of military operations have been unchanging throughout the past 5,000 years of our 90,000-year human history. As an example one notable maneuver is the <span href="/wiki/Double_envelopment" title="Double envelopment">double envelopment</span>, considered to be the consummate <span href="/wiki/Maneuver" title="Maneuver">military maneuver</span>, executed by <span href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</span> at the <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Battle of Cannae</span> in <span href="/wiki/216_BC" title="216 BC">216 BC</span>, over 2,200 years ago. This maneuver was also later effectively used by <span href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</span> at the <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Walaja" title="Battle of Walaja">Battle of Walaja</span> in <span href="/wiki/633" title="633">633</span> AD, and was earlier described by the <span href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</span> military theorist <span href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</span>, who wrote at roughly the same time as the founding of <span href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</span>. By the study of history, the military seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned. The main areas military history includes are the history of wars, battles, and combats, history of the military art, and history of each specific <span href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">military service</span>.<br /> There are a number of ways to categorize warfare. One categorization is conventional versus unconventional, where <span href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">conventional warfare</span> involves well-identified, armed forces fighting one another in a relatively open and straightforward way without weapons of mass destruction. <span href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">"Unconventional"</span> refers to other types of war which can involve <span href="/wiki/Raid_%28military%29" title="Raid (military)">raiding</span>, <span href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla</span>, <span href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">insurgency</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist</span> tactics or alternatively can include <span href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear</span>, <span href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical</span>, or <span href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</span>.<br /> All of these categories usually fall into one of two broader categories: High intensity and low intensity warfare. High intensity warfare is between two superpowers or large countries fighting for political reasons. Low intensity warfare involves counterinsurgency, guerilla warfare and specialized types of troops fighting revolutionaries.<br /> <span name="Periods" id="Periods"></span><br /> <b> Periods</b><br /> <br /> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</span>.</i> <b> Prehistoric warfare</b><br /> <br /> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient warfare</span>.</i> <b> Ancient warfare</b><br /> <br /> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Medieval warfare</span>.</i> <b> Gunpowder warfare</b><br /> <br /> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</span>.</i><img src="http://www.netmagazines.com/images/9118L.jpg" alt="Military history" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Industrial warfare</b><br /> <br /> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <span href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Modern warfare</span>.</i> <b> Modern warfare</b><br /> New weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war.<br /> In <span href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">prehistoric times</span>, fighting occurred by usage of clubs and spears, as early as 35,000 BC.<br /> <span href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</span> gave rise to even more technology. The worth of the <span href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</span> was proved in the battles between the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> and <span href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</span> like the <span href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</span>. <span href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</span> was independently invented by the <span href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</span> and <span href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" title="Axis Powers">Axis powers</span>. It used <span href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</span> to detect nearby objects. <span href="/wiki/Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">Molotov cocktails</span> were invented by the <span href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finns</span> in 1939, during the <span href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</span>. The <span href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</span> was developed by the <span href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</span> and <span href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">launched at Hiroshima and Nagasaki</span> in 1945, ultimately ending World War II.<br /> During the <span href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</span>, even though fighting did not actually occur, the superpowers- the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> and <span href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</span>- engaged in a <span href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">race</span> to develop and increase the level of technology available for military purposes. In the <span href="/wiki/Space_race" title="Space race">space race</span>, both nations attempted to launch human beings into space to the moon. Other technological advances centered around intelligence (like the <span href="/wiki/Spy_satellite" title="Spy satellite">spy satellite</span>) and missiles (<span href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile" title="Ballistic missile">ballistic missiles</span>, <span href="/wiki/Cruise_missile" title="Cruise missile">cruise missiles</span>). <span href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">Nuclear submarine</span>, invented in 1955. This meant submarines no longer had to surface as often, and could run more quietly. They evolved into becoming underwater missile platforms. <span href="/wiki/Cruise_missile" title="Cruise missile">Cruise missiles</span> were invented in Nazi Germany during World War II in the form of the V-1.<br /> <span name="Historiography" id="Historiography"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Sling_%28weapon%29" title="Sling (weapon)">Slinger</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_%28Roman_military%29" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">Auxiliaries</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hastati" title="Hastati">Hastati</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Principes" title="Principes">Principes</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Triarii" title="Triarii">Triarii</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Velites" title="Velites">Velites</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">Cataphract</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Condottieri" title="Condottieri">Condottieri</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">Fyrd</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissary</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</span> (see also: <span href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</span>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">Crossbow</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Pikeman" title="Pikeman">Pikeman</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Sipahi" title="Sipahi">Sipahi</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Prinsenvlag.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prinsenvlag.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Prinsenvlag.svg/20px-Prinsenvlag.svg.png" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England.svg" class="image" title="Flag of England"><img alt="Flag of England" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England.svg" class="thumbborder" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/18px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" width="18" height="11" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Cornelius_Drebbel" title="Cornelius Drebbel">Drebbel</span>'s submarine (1620)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Grand_Union_Flag.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Grand_Union_Flag.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Grand_Union_Flag.svg/20px-Grand_Union_Flag.svg.png" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Turtle_%28submarine%29" title="Turtle (submarine)"><i>Turtle</i></span> (1775)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany_%282-3%29.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany_%282-3%29.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Germany_%282-3%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_%282-3%29.svg.png" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Brandtaucher" title="Brandtaucher"><i>Brandtaucher</i></span> (1850)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg/20px-Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg.png" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Plongeur" title="Plongeur"><i>Plongeur</i></span> (1863)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif/20px-War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Narc%C3%ADs_Monturiol_i_Estarriol" title="Narcís Monturiol i Estarriol"><i>Ictineu II</i></span> (1864)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif/20px-War_Ensign_Spain_1785-1931.gif" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Isaac_Peral" title="Isaac Peral"><i>Submarino Peral</i></span> (1888)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg/20px-Civil_and_Naval_Ensign_of_France.svg.png" width="20" height="13" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Gymnote" title="Gymnote"><i>Gymnote</i></span> (1888)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:US_45_Star_Flag.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_45_Star_Flag.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/US_45_Star_Flag.svg/20px-US_45_Star_Flag.svg.png" width="20" height="11" /></span> <span href="/wiki/USS_Holland_%28SS-1%29" title="USS Holland (SS-1)">USS <i>Holland</i></span> (1897)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany_1933.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany_1933.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Germany_1933.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_1933.svg.png" width="20" height="12" /></span> <span href="/wiki/German_Type_XXI_submarine" title="German Type XXI submarine">Type XXI <i>Elektroboote</i></span> (1943)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:US_flag_48_stars.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_flag_48_stars.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/US_flag_48_stars.svg/20px-US_flag_48_stars.svg.png" width="20" height="11" /></span> <span href="/wiki/USS_Albacore_%28AGSS-569%29" title="USS Albacore (AGSS-569)">USS <i>Albacore</i> (AGSS-569)</span> (1953)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:US_flag_48_stars.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_flag_48_stars.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/US_flag_48_stars.svg/20px-US_flag_48_stars.svg.png" width="20" height="11" /></span> <span href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_%28SSN-571%29" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS <i>Nautilus</i> (SSN-571)</span> (1954)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg.png" width="20" height="10" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Zulu_class_submarine" title="Zulu class submarine">Zulu-class SSB</span> (1955)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="20" height="11" /></span> <span href="/wiki/USS_Narwhal_%28SSN-671%29" title="USS Narwhal (SSN-671)">USS <i>Narwhal</i></span> (1967)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg.png" width="20" height="10" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Alfa_class_submarine" title="Alfa class submarine">Alfa-class SSN</span> (1977)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" class="image" title=""><img alt="" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" width="20" height="12" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Type_212_submarine" title="Type 212 submarine">Type 212 submarine</span> (1998) <b> Technological evolution</b><br /> Gaining an accurate assessment of past military encounters may prove difficult because of <span href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</span>, even in ancient times, and systematic <span href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</span> in more modern times. Descriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failures and exaggerate when boasting of successes. Further, <span href="/wiki/Military_secret" title="Military secret">military secrets</span> may prevent some salient facts from being reported at all; scholars still do not know the nature of <span href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</span>, for instance. Despite these limitations, wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of human history.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</span>, in the <span href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</span>, described the <span href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</span>. However, the <span href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Iliad" title="Historicity of the Iliad">historicity of the Iliad</span> is doubtful, as many historians believe that the Iliad is essentially legendary. Others believe that it is partly historical.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</span> (484 BC - 425 BC) wrote the <i><span href="/wiki/Histories_%28Herodotus%29" title="Histories (Herodotus)">The Histories</span></i>. He is, along with Thucydides, often known as the "father of history".<br /> <span href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</span> (430 BC - 355 BC) is most known for <i><span href="/wiki/Anabasis_%28Xenophon%29" title="Anabasis (Xenophon)">Anabasis</span></i>, in which he records the expedition of <span href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Younger" title="Cyrus the Younger">Cyrus the Younger</span> into <span href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</span>. It was one of the first books centered around the analysis of a leader.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</span> (100 BC - 44 BC) authored several military books, such as <i><span href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</span></i> and <i><span href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili">Commentarii de Bello Civili</span></i>, in which he comments upon his campaigns.<br /> Some other more recent prominent military historians include:<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hans_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Hans Delbrück">Hans Delbrück</span> (1848-1929)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Charles_Oman" title="Charles Oman">Charles Oman</span> (1860-1946)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Basil_Liddell_Hart" title="Basil Liddell Hart">Basil Liddell Hart</span> (1895-1970)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Martin_van_Creveld" title="Martin van Creveld">Martin van Creveld</span> (1946)<br /> <span href="/wiki/John_Keegan" title="John Keegan">John Keegan</span> (1934)<br /> <span href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William Ledyard Rodgers</span> (d. 1944)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Lynn_Montross" title="Lynn Montross">Lynn Montross</span> (d. 1961)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Cornelius_Ryan" title="Cornelius Ryan">Cornelius Ryan</span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=R._Ernest_%26_Trevor_N._Dupuy&action=edit" class="new" title="R. Ernest & Trevor N. Dupuy">R. Ernest & Trevor N. Dupuy</span> (a.k.a. Dupuy & Dupuy)<br /> <span href="/wiki/John_Terraine" title="John Terraine">John Terraine</span> (1921-2003)<br /> <span href="/wiki/George_F.G._Stanley" title="George F.G. Stanley">George F.G. Stanley</span> (1907-2002)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Victor Davis Hanson</span> <b> Historiography</b><br /> <span name="By_region" id="By_region"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Historical_reenactment" title="Historical reenactment">Historical reenactment</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Landa" title="Manuel de Landa">Manuel de Landa</span>'s <i><span href="/wiki/War_in_the_Age_of_Intelligent_Machines" title="War in the Age of Intelligent Machines">War in the Age of Intelligent Machines</span></i> (1991)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoner of war</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp" title="Prisoner-of-war camp">Prisoner-of-war camp</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Battledress" title="Battledress">Battledress</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Militaria" title="Militaria">Militaria</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wargaming" title="Wargaming">Wargaming</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapon</span> <img src="http://www.joburg-archive.co.za/images_2006/apr/military000.jpg" alt="Military history" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> See also</b><br />  Only recognised by <span href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</span>.<br /> <span name="Bibliography" id="Bibliography"></span><br /> <b> By region</b><br /> <span name="Other" id="Other"></span><br /> Fry, Douglas P., 2005, <i>The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence</i>, Oxford University Press.<br /> Kelly, Raymond C., 2000, <i>Warless Societies and the Origin of War</i>, University of Michigan Press.<br /> Otterbein, Keith, 2004, <i>How War Began</i>. Texas A&M University Press. <b> Other</b><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-15067025745441508972007-11-30T07:46:00.001-08:002007-11-30T07:46:40.990-08:00<img src="http://www.lodgesofnz.co.nz/images/new-zealand-map.gif" alt="Realm of New Zealand" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <small>This article is part of the series:</small> <b><span href="/wiki/Politics_of_New_Zealand" title="Politics of New Zealand">Politics and government of New Zealand</span></b><br /> The <b>Realm of New Zealand</b> is the territory in which the <span href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy in New Zealand">Queen in right of New Zealand</span> is head of state. The Realm comprises the <span href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</span>, <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</span>, <span href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niue</span>, <span href="/wiki/Tokelau" title="Tokelau">Tokelau</span> and New Zealand's <span href="/wiki/Ross_Dependency" title="Ross Dependency">Ross Dependency</span> in Antarctica. The term "Realm of New Zealand" is described in the Letters Patent constituting the office of Governor-General of New Zealand of 1983 in article I.<br /> <span name="Governor-General" id="Governor-General"></span><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Constitution_of_New_Zealand" title="Constitution of New Zealand">Constitution</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Executive_%28government%29" title="Executive (government)">Executive</span></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy in New Zealand">Sovereign</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_New_Zealand" title="Elizabeth II of New Zealand">Queen Elizabeth II</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_New_Zealand" title="Governor-General of New Zealand">Governor-General</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Anand_Satyanand" title="Anand Satyanand">Hon. Anand Satyanand</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Executive_Council_of_New_Zealand" title="Executive Council of New Zealand">Executive Council</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Cabinet" title="New Zealand Cabinet">Cabinet</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_New_Zealand" title="Prime Minister of New Zealand">Prime Minister</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Helen_Clark" title="Helen Clark">Rt Hon. Helen Clark</span><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislative</span></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Parliament_of_New_Zealand" title="Parliament of New Zealand">Parliament</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/New_Zealand_House_of_Representatives" title="New Zealand House of Representatives">House of Representatives</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_New_Zealand_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives">Speaker of the House</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_%28New_Zealand%29" title="Official Opposition (New Zealand)">Official Opposition</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_%28New_Zealand%29" title="Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)">Leader of the Opposition</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand_elections" title="New Zealand elections">Elections</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_New_Zealand" title="Electoral system of New Zealand">Electoral system</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand_electorates" title="New Zealand electorates">Electorates</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Referendums_in_New_Zealand" title="Referendums in New Zealand">Referendums</span><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judicial</span></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_Zealand" title="Supreme Court of New Zealand">Supreme Court</span><br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_New_Zealand" title="Chief Justice of New Zealand">Chief Justice</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_New_Zealand" title="Court of Appeal of New Zealand">Court of Appeal</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/High_Court_of_New_Zealand" title="High Court of New Zealand">High Court</span><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Regions_of_New_Zealand" title="Regions of New Zealand">Regional authorities</span></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Territorial_authorities_of_New_Zealand" title="Territorial authorities of New Zealand">Territorial authorities</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Unitary_authority#New_Zealand" title="Unitary authority">Unitary authority</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_politicians" title="List of New Zealand politicians">Politicians</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_New_Zealand" title="Political parties in New Zealand">Political parties</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Political_topics_in_New_Zealand" title="Political topics in New Zealand">Political topics</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_politics" title="Māori politics">Māori politics</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_New_Zealand" title="Foreign relations of New Zealand">Foreign relations</span> <b> Governor-General</b><br /> The Realm itself is a collection of former British colonies and protectorates. New Zealand was a British colony formed in 1840 and became a dominion in 1907. The Cook Islands and Niue were former British protectorates which were transferred to New Zealand administration in the early twentieth century. The Ross Dependency was put under New Zealand administration in 1923, and Tokelau was transferred to New Zealand from the <span href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Ellice_Islands" title="Gilbert and Ellice Islands">Gilbert and Ellice Islands</span> colony in 1925.<br /> <span name="Cook_Islands_and_Niue" id="Cook_Islands_and_Niue"></span><br /> <b> Sovereignty within the Realm</b><br /> Both the Cook Islands and Niue are said to be self-governing in <i><span href="/wiki/Freely_associated_state" title="Freely associated state">free association</span></i> with New Zealand. The <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Parliament" title="New Zealand Parliament">New Zealand Parliament</span> is not empowered to unilaterally pass legislation in respect of these countries. In foreign affairs and defence issues New Zealand acts on behalf of these countries but only with their advice and consent.<br /> As the Governor-General is resident in New Zealand, the Cook Islands Constitution provides for the distinct position of <span href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Representative" title="Queen's Representative">Queen's Representative</span>. This individual is not subordinate to the Governor-General and acts as the local representative of the Queen in right of New Zealand. <span href="/wiki/As_of_2005" title="As of 2005">As of 2005</span> Sir <span href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Goodwin&action=edit" class="new" title="Frederick Goodwin">Frederick Goodwin</span> is the Queen's Representative to the Cook Islands.<br /> According to the Niue's Constitution of 1974, the Governor-General of New Zealand acts as the Queen's representative.<br /> In the Cook Islands and Niue the New Zealand <span href="/wiki/High_Commissioner" title="High Commissioner">High Commissioner</span> is the diplomatic representative from <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</span>. <span href="/wiki/As_of_2005" title="As of 2005">As of 2005</span>, John Bryan is the New Zealand High Commissioner to the Cook Islands and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Anton_Ojala&action=edit" class="new" title="Anton Ojala">Anton Ojala</span> is the New Zealand High Commissioner to Niue.<br /> Despite their close relationship to New Zealand, both the Cook Islands and Niue maintain some diplomatic relations in their own name. Both countries maintain High Commissions in New Zealand and have New Zealand High Commissioners resident in their capitals. In Commonwealth practice, High Commissioners represent their governments, not the Head of State.<br /> <span name="New_Zealand" id="New_Zealand"></span><br /> <b> New Zealand</b><br /> Tokelau has a lesser degree of <i>de jure</i> independence than the Cook Islands and Niue have, and is presently moving toward free association status. New Zealand's representative in Tokelau is the <span href="/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Government" title="Administrator of the Government">Administrator</span> of Tokelau and has the power to overturn rules passed by the general fono.<br /> <span name="Ross_Dependency" id="Ross_Dependency"></span><br /> <b> Tokelau</b><br /> New Zealand's claim to the Ross Dependency is held in <span href="/wiki/Abeyance" title="Abeyance">abeyance</span>, per the <span href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</span>. The Governor-General of New Zealand, however, is also the <span href="/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">Governor</span> of the Ross Dependency. <span href="http://www.mfat.govt.nz/foreign/antarctica/ross/rossdependency.html" class="external text" title="http://www.mfat.govt.nz/foreign/antarctica/ross/rossdependency.html" rel="nofollow">MFAT</span> <span href="http://www.mfat.govt.nz/speech/pastspeeches/speeches2002/23apr02.html" class="external text" title="http://www.mfat.govt.nz/speech/pastspeeches/speeches2002/23apr02.html" rel="nofollow">Speech of 23-Apr-02, Antarctic Conference</span> The Ross Dependency claim includes <span href="/wiki/McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</span>, operated by the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>.<br /> <span name="Summary" id="Summary"></span><br /> <b> Ross Dependency</b><br /> <span name="Future_of_the_Realm" id="Future_of_the_Realm"></span><br /> <b> Future of the Realm</b><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">Dominion of New Zealand</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Realm" title="Commonwealth Realm">Commonwealth Realm</span> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-78552495479051982282007-11-29T09:18:00.001-08:002007-11-29T09:18:36.508-08:00<img src="http://www.fixins.com/blogtest/uploaded_images/full_crew_img_26-780477.jpg" alt="Married to the Mob" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <i><b>Married to the Mob</b></i> is a <span href="/wiki/1988" title="1988">1988</span> <span href="/wiki/Comedy_film" title="Comedy film">comedy film</span>. It was directed by <span href="/wiki/Jonathan_Demme" title="Jonathan Demme">Jonathan Demme</span> and starred <span href="/wiki/Michelle_Pfeiffer" title="Michelle Pfeiffer">Michelle Pfeiffer</span>, <span href="/wiki/Matthew_Modine" title="Matthew Modine">Matthew Modine</span>, <span href="/wiki/Dean_Stockwell" title="Dean Stockwell">Dean Stockwell</span> and <span href="/wiki/Mercedes_Ruehl" title="Mercedes Ruehl">Mercedes Ruehl</span>.<br /> A <span href="/wiki/FBI" title="FBI">FBI</span> agent, Mike Downey, (played by Modine) is trying to infiltrate a <span href="/wiki/Mafia" title="Mafia">mafia</span> family. He sees a chance when Angela de Marco (played by Pfeiffer) tries to leave the criminal lifestyle after her gangster husband, Frank de Marco (<span href="/wiki/Alec_Baldwin" title="Alec Baldwin">Alec Baldwin</span>), is murdered.<br /> The story is complicated by the mafia boss, Tony "The Tiger" Russo (played by Stockwell), who is romantically pursuing Angela but was also the person who killed her husband Frank over a dalliance with his mistress. The plot is further complicated by the mobster's jealous wife, Connie Russo, (played by Mercedes Ruehl) and her suspicions about her husband. Further complication evolves with Mike Downey's romantic interest in the Angela character. Later an attempted assassination against Tony takes places at a "Burger World" drive-through.<br /> Downey eventually goes out with Angela, though Tony eventually finds out about the FBI sting (and Downey's cover). <span href="/wiki/Oliver_Platt" title="Oliver Platt">Oliver Platt</span> plays one of the agents tailing Tony.<br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-18941047595591210522007-11-28T08:35:00.001-08:002007-11-28T08:35:08.873-08:00 <b></b><br /> <b>George VI</b> (Albert Frederick Arthur George; <span href="/wiki/December_14" title="December 14">14 December</span> <span href="/wiki/1895" title="1895">1895</span> – <span href="/wiki/February_6" title="February 6">6 February</span> <span href="/wiki/1952" title="1952">1952</span>) was <span href="/wiki/British_monarchy" title="British monarchy">King of the United Kingdom</span> and the <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> <span href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">Dominions</span> from <span href="/wiki/December_11" title="December 11">11 December</span> <span href="/wiki/1936" title="1936">1936</span> until his death. He was the last <span href="/wiki/Emperor_of_India" title="Emperor of India">Emperor of India</span> (until 1947) and the last <span href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland" title="King of Ireland">King of Ireland</span> (until 1949).<br /> As the second son of <span href="/wiki/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="George V of the United Kingdom">King George V</span>, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother, <span href="/wiki/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Edward VIII of the United Kingdom">Edward</span>. He served in the <span href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</span> during <span href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</span>, and after the war took on the usual round of public engagements. He married <span href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bowes-Lyon" title="Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon">Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon</span> in 1923, and they had two daughters, <span href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Elizabeth</span> (who succeeded him as Queen Elizabeth II) and <span href="/wiki/Princess_Margaret%2C_Countess_of_Snowdon" title="Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon">Margaret</span>.<br /> At the death of their father in 1936, his brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII. However, less than a year later Edward expressed his desire to marry the twice-divorced <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</span> <span href="/wiki/Socialite" title="Socialite">socialite</span> <span href="/wiki/Wallis%2C_The_Duchess_of_Windsor" title="Wallis, The Duchess of Windsor">Wallis Simpson</span>. For political and religious reasons, the British <span href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</span>, <span href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Stanley Baldwin</span>, informed Edward that he could not marry Mrs. Simpson and remain king. So, <span href="/wiki/Edward_VIII_abdication_crisis" title="Edward VIII abdication crisis">Edward abdicated</span> to marry. By reason of this abdication, unique in 2000 years of British history, George VI ascended the throne as the third monarch of the <span href="/wiki/House_of_Windsor" title="House of Windsor">House of Windsor</span>.<br /> Within 24 hours of his accession the <span href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish</span> parliament (the <span href="/wiki/Oireachtas" title="Oireachtas">Oireachtas</span>) passed the <i><span href="/wiki/External_Relations_Act" title="External Relations Act">External Relations Act</span></i>, which essentially removed the power of the monarch in <span href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</span>. Further events greatly altered the position of the monarchy during his reign: three years after his accession, his realms, except Ireland, were at <span href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">war</span> with <span href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</span>. In the next two years, war with <span href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29" title="Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)">Italy</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</span> followed. A major consequence of World War II was the decline of the British Empire, with the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</span> rising as pre-eminent <span href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">world powers</span>. With the <span href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">independence</span> of <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</span> and <span href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</span> in 1947, and the <span href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland_Act" title="Republic of Ireland Act">foundation of the Republic of Ireland</span> in 1949, King George's reign saw the acceleration of the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the <span href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</span>.<br /> <span name="Birth_and_family" id="Birth_and_family"></span><br /> <b> Birth and family</b><br /> As a great-grandson of <span href="/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</span>, Albert was styled His Highness Prince Albert of York from birth. In 1898, Queen Victoria issued <span href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters Patent</span> that granted the children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales the style <i><span href="/wiki/Royal_Highness" title="Royal Highness">Royal Highness</span></i>. So, at age two, Albert became His Royal Highness Prince Albert of York.<br /> He often suffered from ill health and was described as "easily frightened and somewhat prone to tears".<br /> Queen Victoria died on <span href="/wiki/January_22" title="January 22">22 January</span> <span href="/wiki/1901" title="1901">1901</span>, and the Prince of Wales succeeded her as King Edward VII. The Duke of York became the new Prince of Wales. Prince Edward was then second in line for the throne, and Prince Albert was third.<br /> <span name="Military_career_and_education" id="Military_career_and_education"></span><br /> <b> Early life</b><br /> From 1909, Albert attended the <span href="/wiki/Osborne_House" title="Osborne House">Royal Naval College, Osborne</span> as a naval <span href="/wiki/Cadet" title="Cadet">cadet</span>. He came bottom of the class in the final examination, but despite this he progressed to the <span href="/wiki/Britannia_Royal_Naval_College" title="Britannia Royal Naval College">Royal Naval College, Dartmouth</span> in 1911.<br /> <span name="Marriage" id="Marriage"></span><br /> <b> Military career and education</b><br /> In a time when royals were expected to marry fellow royals, it was unusual that Albert had a great deal of freedom in choosing a prospective wife. In 1920 he met Lady <span href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bowes-Lyon" title="Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon">Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon</span>, the youngest daughter of <span href="/wiki/Claude_Bowes-Lyon%2C_14th_Earl_of_Strathmore_and_Kinghorne" title="Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne">Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne</span> and <span href="/wiki/Cecilia_Bowes-Lyon%2C_Countess_of_Strathmore_and_Kinghorne" title="Cecilia Bowes-Lyon, Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne">Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck</span>. He became determined to marry her.<br /> <span name="Reluctant_king" id="Reluctant_king"></span><br /> <b> Marriage</b><br /> On <span href="/wiki/January_20" title="January 20">20 January</span> <span href="/wiki/1936" title="1936">1936</span>, King George V died and Prince Edward ascended the throne as Edward VIII. As Edward had no children, Albert was the <span href="/wiki/Heir_presumptive" title="Heir presumptive">heir presumptive</span> to the throne until his unmarried brother had any legitimate children, or died. George V had had severe reservations about Edward, saying, "I pray God that my eldest son will never marry and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne."<br /> <span name="Reign" id="Reign"></span><br /> <b> Reluctant king</b><br /> Albert assumed the style and title King George VI to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy.<br /> In 1945, in an echo of Chamberlain's appearance, the King invited Churchill to appear with him on the balcony of Buckingham Palace for the <span href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">VE Day</span> celebrations.<br /> <span name="Empire_to_Commonwealth" id="Empire_to_Commonwealth"></span><br /> <b> Empire to Commonwealth</b><br /> The stress of the war had taken its toll on the King's health, In 2002, the remains of his wife Queen Elizabeth and the ashes of his daughter, <span href="/wiki/Princess_Margaret%2C_Countess_of_Snowdon" title="Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon">Princess Margaret</span>, were interred in the King George VI Memorial Chapel in St George's Chapel alongside him.<br /> <span name="Legacy" id="Legacy"></span><br /> <b> Illness and death</b><br /> There are a number of geographical features, roads, and institutions named after George VI. These include <span href="/wiki/King_George_Hospital" title="King George Hospital">King George Hospital</span> in London; the <span href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Highway_99A" title="British Columbia Highway 99A">King George VI Highway</span>, including the <span href="/wiki/King_George_Station" title="King George Station">King George Station</span>, in the <span href="/wiki/Metro_Vancouver" title="Metro Vancouver">Metro Vancouver</span> district of <span href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</span>; <span href="/wiki/George_VI_Sound" title="George VI Sound">George VI Sound</span> in <span href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</span>; and the <span href="/wiki/King_George_VI_Chase" title="King George VI Chase">King George VI Chase</span>, a horse race in the United Kingdom.<br /> <span name="Titles.2C_styles_and_honours" id="Titles.2C_styles_and_honours"></span><br /> <b> Legacy</b><br /> <span name="Titles" id="Titles"></span><br /> <b> Titles, styles and honours</b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" class="image" title="Flag of the United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of the United Kingdom" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" width="22" height="11" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</span></b><br /> <i>and, occasionally, outside of the United Kingdom, and with regard to India (until the King ceased to use the imperial title upon <span href="/wiki/Independence_Day_%28India%29" title="Independence Day (India)">India's independence</span>)</i><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</span></b>:<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jersey.svg" class="image" title="Flag of Jersey.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Flag_of_Jersey.svg/25px-Flag_of_Jersey.svg.png" width="25" height="15" border="0" /></span> <b>Islands of <span href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</span> & <span href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</span></b>:<br /> <span name="Styles" id="Styles"></span><br /> <b>1895–1898</b>: <i>His Highness</i> Prince Albert of York<br /> <b>1898–1901</b>: <i>His Royal Highness</i> Prince Albert of York<br /> <b>1901</b>: <i>His Royal Highness</i> Prince Albert of Cornwall and York<br /> <b>1901–1910</b>: <i>His Royal Highness</i> Prince Albert of Wales<br /> <b>1910–1920</b>: <i>His Royal Highness</i> The Prince Albert<br /> <b>1920–1936</b>: <i>His Royal Highness</i> The Duke of York<br /> <ul><br /> <li><i>in Scotland:</i> <b>May 1929</b>: <i>His Grace</i> The Lord High Commissioner<br /> <b>1936–1952</b>: <i>His Majesty</i> The King<br /> <b>1936–1947</b>: <i>His Imperial Majesty</i> The King–Emperor<br /> <b>1936–1952</b>: <span href="/wiki/Lord_of_Mann" title="Lord of Mann">Lord of Mann</span><br /> <b>1936–1952</b>: <span href="/wiki/Duke_of_Normandy" title="Duke of Normandy">Duke of Normandy</span> <b> Titles</b><br /> From his brother's ascension to the throne, on <span href="/wiki/January_20" title="January 20">20 January</span> <span href="/wiki/1936" title="1936">1936</span>, until his own accession, on <span href="/wiki/December_11" title="December 11">11 December</span> <span href="/wiki/1936" title="1936">1936</span>, Prince Albert held the style <i>His Royal Highness, The Prince Albert, Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney</i>.<br /> His full style as king was, from <span href="/wiki/December_11" title="December 11">11 December</span> <span href="/wiki/1936" title="1936">1936</span>, <i>George the Sixth, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India</i>. Following 1948 the style Emperor of India was dropped, and the King was styled <i>George the Sixth, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith</i>.<br /> <span name="Honours" id="Honours"></span><br /> <b> Styles</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/List_of_the_honours_and_appointments_of_George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of the honours and appointments of George VI of the United Kingdom">List of the honours and appointments of George VI of the United Kingdom</span></i><img src="http://lakdiva.org/coins/lanka/george~vi__10c_o.jpg" alt="George VI" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Honours</b><br /> <span name="Notes_and_sources" id="Notes_and_sources"></span><br /> <b> Notes and sources</b><br /> <span name="Further_reading" id="Further_reading"></span><br /> <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Bradford-1989">Bradford, Sarah (1989). <i>King George VI</i>. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0297796674" class="internal">ISBN 0297796674</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+George+VI&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.place=London&rft.isbn=0297796674"> </span><br /> <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Howarth-1987">Howarth, Patrick (1987). <i>George VI</i>. Hutchinson. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0091710006" class="internal">ISBN 0091710006</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=George+VI&rft.aulast=Howarth&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.isbn=0091710006"> </span><br /> <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=George+VI+%281895%E2%80%931952%29&rft.aulast=Matthew&rft.aufirst=H.+C.+G.&rft.date=2004&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew2004">Matthew, H. C. G. (2004), "George VI (1895–1952)", <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i> (Oxford University Press)</cite></span><br /> <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Sinclair-1988">Sinclair, David (1988). <i>Two Georges: the Making of the Modern Monarchy</i>. Hodder and Staughton. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0340332409" class="internal">ISBN 0340332409</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Georges%3A+the+Making+of+the+Modern+Monarchy&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=David&rft.pub=Hodder+and+Staughton&rft.isbn=0340332409"> </span><br /> <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Wheeler-Bennett-1958"><span href="/wiki/John_Wheeler-Bennett" title="John Wheeler-Bennett">Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John</span> (1958). <i>King George VI: His Life and Reign</i>. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+George+VI%3A+His+Life+and+Reign&rft.aulast=Wheeler-Bennett&rft.aufirst=Sir+John&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.place=New+York"> </span> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-11126529597339730862007-11-27T09:19:00.001-08:002007-11-27T09:19:18.184-08:00 <b></b><br /> <i><b>Measure for Measure</b></i> is a <span href="/wiki/Play" title="Play">play</span> by <span href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</span>, originally classified in the First Folio as a comedy. This is one of the playwright's three <span href="/wiki/Problem_plays_%28Shakespeare%29" title="Problem plays (Shakespeare)">problem plays</span>, so-called because they cannot be easily classified by modern editors.<br /> <span name="Sources" id="Sources"></span><br /> <b> Sources</b><br /> <i>Measure for Measure</i> was written in <span href="/wiki/1603" title="1603">1603</span> or <span href="/wiki/1604" title="1604">1604</span>. The play was first published in 1623 in the <span href="/wiki/First_Folio" title="First Folio">First Folio</span>.<br /> <span name="Performance" id="Performance"></span><br /> <img src="http://w3.gre.ac.uk/drama/images/plays/measure.jpg" alt="Measure For Measure" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Date and text</b><br /> The earliest recorded performance of <i>Measure for Measure</i> took place on "St. Steven's night", <span href="/wiki/December_26" title="December 26">December 26</span>, <span href="/wiki/1604" title="1604">1604</span>. During the <span href="/wiki/English_Restoration" title="English Restoration">Restoration</span>, <i>Measure</i> was one of many Shakespearean plays adapted to the tastes of a new audience. Sir <span href="/wiki/William_Davenant" title="William Davenant">William Davenant</span> inserted Benedick and Beatrice from <i>Much Ado About Nothing</i> into his adaptation, called <i>The Law Against Lovers</i>. <span href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</span> saw the hybrid play on <span href="/wiki/February_18" title="February 18">18 February</span> <span href="/wiki/1662" title="1662">1662</span>; he describes it in his Diary as "a good play, and well performed"—he was especially impressed by the singing and dancing of the young actress who played Viola, Beatrice's sister (Davenant's creation). Davenant rehabilitated Angelo, who is now only testing Isabella's chastity; the play ends with a triple marriage. This, among the earliest and clumsiest of Restoration adaptations, appears not to have succeeded on stage.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Charles_Gildon" title="Charles Gildon">Charles Gildon</span> returned to Shakespeare's text in a 1695 production at <span href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Inn_Fields" title="Lincoln's Inn Fields">Lincoln's Inn Fields</span>; he removed Beatrice and Benedick, but he also removed all of the low-comic characters. Moreover, by making both Angelo and Mariana, and Claudio and Juliet, secretly married, he eliminates almost all of the illicit sexuality that is so central to Shakespeare's play. Gildon also offers a partly facetious epilogue, spoken by Shakespeare's ghost, who complains of the constant revisions of his work. Like Davenant's, Gildon's version did not gain currency and was not revived.<br /> <span href="/wiki/John_Rich_%28producer%29" title="John Rich (producer)">John Rich</span> presented a version closer to Shakespeare's original in 1720.<br /> Notable recent productions of <i>Measure for Measure</i> are <span href="/wiki/Peter_Brook" title="Peter Brook">Peter Brook</span>'s <span href="/wiki/1950" title="1950">1950</span> staging at the <span href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Memorial_Theatre" title="Shakespeare Memorial Theatre">Shakespeare Memorial Theatre</span> with <span href="/wiki/John_Gielgud" title="John Gielgud">John Gielgud</span> as <span href="/wiki/Angelo_%28Shakespeare%29" title="Angelo (Shakespeare)">Angelo</span>, <span href="/wiki/Charles_Laughton" title="Charles Laughton">Charles Laughton</span> as <span href="/wiki/Angelo_%28Shakespeare%29" title="Angelo (Shakespeare)">Angelo</span> at the <span href="/wiki/Old_Vic_Theatre" title="Old Vic Theatre">Old Vic Theatre</span> in <span href="/wiki/1933" title="1933">1933</span>, and a <span href="/wiki/1976" title="1976">1976</span> <span href="/wiki/New_York_Shakespeare_Festival" title="New York Shakespeare Festival">New York Shakespeare Festival</span> production featuring <span href="/wiki/Meryl_Streep" title="Meryl Streep">Meryl Streep</span> as <span href="/wiki/Isabella" title="Isabella">Isabella</span> and <span href="/wiki/John_Cazale" title="John Cazale">John Cazale</span> as <span href="/wiki/Angelo_%28Shakespeare%29" title="Angelo (Shakespeare)">Angelo</span>. The play has only been produced on <span href="/wiki/Broadway_theatres" title="Broadway theatres">Broadway</span> once, in a <span href="/wiki/1973" title="1973">1973</span> production that featured <span href="/wiki/David_Ogden_Stiers" title="David Ogden Stiers">David Ogden Stiers</span> as Vincentio and <span href="/wiki/Kevin_Kline" title="Kevin Kline">Kevin Kline</span> in the small role of Friar Peter.<br /> <span name="Characters" id="Characters"></span><br /> <b> Performance</b><br /> <b>The Duke</b> The central figure is the Duke, who spends most of his time dressed as a friar, Lodovic, in order to observe what is happening in his absence. He is seemingly unfailingly virtuous, good, and kind-hearted. He has tended to rule a little softly, which is why he has enlisted <span href="/wiki/Angelo_%28Shakespeare%29" title="Angelo (Shakespeare)">Angelo</span>'s help. In the <span href="/wiki/First_Folio" title="First Folio">First Folio</span>, The Duke is listed in the Dramatis Personae as "Vincentio," but this name appears nowhere else in the play.<br /> <b>Isabella</b>, a novice nun, is a virtuous and chaste young woman who faces a difficult decision when her brother is sentenced to death for <span href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">fornication</span>. Isabella does not approve of her brother's actions, but she pleads for his life out of loyalty, sisterly devotion, and a belief that the punishment is too harsh for the crime. Ultimately she would rather her brother die and go to heaven, than she herself live a life of hell: "more than our brother is our chastity".<br /> <b>Claudio</b> is Isabella's brother, a young man sentenced to death for impregnating an unmarried woman. He was engaged to her by a common-law agreement, but they had sexual intercourse before the legal marriage took place. According to the play, by the letter of the law this was punishable by death, but the more recent sentence had been to force two 'fornicators' to marry.<br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Angelo_%28Shakespeare%29" title="Angelo (Shakespeare)">Angelo</span></b> is the villain of the play, a man who rules strictly and without mercy. He has his own weaknesses, however, and he is loathsome more for his hypocrisy than for anything else. He presents Isabella with a difficult proposition, to sleep with him in exchange for her brother's life, but then does not hold up his end of the bargain when he believes she has held hers.<br /> <b>Escalus</b> is a wise lord who advises Angelo to be more merciful. He is loyal to the Duke and seeks to carry out his orders justly, but cannot go against Angelo's will. As his name suggests (Scales) he takes a balanced decision to everything, which in turn makes him one of the most wise characters in the play.<br /> <b>Lucio</b>, described by Shakespeare as a "fantastic," is a flamboyant bachelor who provides much of the play's comedy. He is a friend of Claudio, and tries to help him. He is a bawd himself, but would rather die than marry the 'whore' who is pregnant with his child.<br /> <b>Mariana</b> was intended to marry Angelo, but he called the wedding off when she lost her dowry in a shipwreck that killed her brother.<br /> <b>Mistress Overdone</b> runs a brothel in Vienna.<br /> <b>Pompey</b> is a clown who works for Mistress Overdone.<br /> The <b>Provost</b> runs the prison, and is responsible for carrying out all of Angelo's orders.<br /> <b>Elbow</b> is a dim-witted constable who arrests people for misconduct, particularly of the sexual variety. He provides some comic relief through his frequent use of <span href="/wiki/Malapropism" title="Malapropism">malapropisms</span> in his speech.<br /> <b>Barnardine</b> is a long-term prisoner in the jail, sentenced to be executed. The Duke originally considers him hopeless and therefore dispensable but later changes his mind.<br /> <b>Juliet</b> is Claudio's lover, pregnant with his child.<br /> <span name="Synopsis" id="Synopsis"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-45902556671239191862007-11-26T09:38:00.001-08:002007-11-26T09:38:34.437-08:00<img src="http://www.writeagainsoon.com/images/114_1421-thumb.jpg" alt="St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>St. Elizabeth's flood</b> of 1421 was a <span href="/wiki/Flooding" title="Flooding">flooding</span> of an area in what is now the <span href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</span>. It takes its name from the feast day of Saint <span href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Hungary" title="Elisabeth of Hungary">Elisabeth of Hungary</span> which was formerly <span href="/wiki/November_19" title="November 19">November 19</span>.<br /> During the night of <span href="/wiki/November_18" title="November 18">November 18</span> to <span href="/wiki/November_19" title="November 19">November 19</span>, <span href="/wiki/1421" title="1421">1421</span> a heavy storm near the <span href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</span> coast caused the <span href="/wiki/Dike_%28construction%29" title="Dike (construction)">dikes</span> to break in a number of places and the lower lying <span href="/wiki/Polder" title="Polder">polder</span> land was flooded. A number of villages were swallowed by the flood and were lost, causing either 2,000 or 10,000 casualties. The dike breaks and floods caused widespread devastation in <span href="/wiki/Zeeland" title="Zeeland">Zeeland</span> and <span href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</span>. This flood separated the cities of <span href="/wiki/Geertruidenberg" title="Geertruidenberg">Geertruidenberg</span> and <span href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</span> which had previously fought against each other during the <span href="/wiki/Hook_and_Cod_wars" title="Hook and Cod wars">Hook and Cod (civil) wars</span>.<br /> Most of the area remained flooded for several decades. Reclaimed parts are the Island of <span href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Hoeksche_Waard" title="Hoeksche Waard">Hoeksche Waard</span> island, and north-western <span href="/wiki/North_Brabant" title="North Brabant">North Brabant</span> (around <span href="/wiki/Geertruidenberg" title="Geertruidenberg">Geertruidenberg</span>). Most of the <span href="/wiki/Biesbosch" title="Biesbosch">Biesbosch</span> area has been flooded since.<br /> The cause of the flood was not a <span href="/wiki/Spring_tide" title="Spring tide">spring tide</span> like in the great flood of <span href="/wiki/1953" title="1953">1953</span> (see <span href="/wiki/North_Sea_flood_of_1953" title="North Sea flood of 1953">North Sea flood of 1953</span>), but water from the storm in the North Sea surged up the rivers causing the dikes to overflow and break through.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="Dutch_Wikipedia" id="Dutch_Wikipedia"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Kinderdijk" title="Kinderdijk">Kinderdijk</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/St._Elizabeth%27s_flood_%281404%29" title="St. Elizabeth's flood (1404)">St. Elizabeth's flood (1404)</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Floods_in_the_Netherlands" title="Floods in the Netherlands">Floods in the Netherlands</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_disasters" title="List of disasters">list of disasters</span> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-70326415369437678382007-11-25T10:05:00.001-08:002007-11-25T10:05:52.516-08:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Penal labour</b> or <b>penal servitude</b> is a form of <span href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" title="Unfree labour">unfree labour</span>. The term may refer to two different notions: labour as a form of punishment and labour as a form of occupation of convicts.<br /> <span name="Punitive_labour" id="Punitive_labour"></span><br /> <b> Punitive labour</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Convict" title="Convict">Convict</span> or <span href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</span> <span href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">labour</span> (also called hard labour) is another classic form of unfree labour used in both past and present as an additional form of punishment beyond imprisonment alone.<br /> Convicts subjected to forced labour have often been regarded with lack of sympathy, because of the <span href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</span> attached to people regarded as "common criminals" and a general perception that it must be deserved through the severity of the crime. In some countries and historical periods, however, prison labour has been forced upon people who have been: victims of prejudice, convicted of political crimes, convicted of "victimless crimes", or people who committed theft or related offences because they lacked any other means of subsistence — categories of people for whom <span href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</span> is typically called for.<br /> In the UK in the 19th century, for instance, hard labour became a standard feature of penal servitude as <span href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">penal transportation</span> was phased out. Although it was prescribed for severe crimes (e.g. rape, attempted murder, malicious wounding, per the 1861 <span href="/w/index.php?title=Offences_against_the_Persons_Act&action=edit" class="new" title="Offences against the Persons Act">Offences against the Persons Act</span>) it was also widely applied in cases of minor crime such as <span href="/wiki/Petty_theft" title="Petty theft">petty theft</span> and <span href="/wiki/Vagrancy_%28people%29" title="Vagrancy (people)">vagrancy</span>, as well as victimless behaviour deemed harmful to the fabric of society. Notable recipients of forced labour under British law include <span href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</span> (after his conviction for <span href="/wiki/Gross_indecency" title="Gross indecency">gross indecency</span>) and <span href="/wiki/John_William_Gott" title="John William Gott">John William Gott</span> (a terminally ill trouser salesman convicted of <span href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</span>).<br /> The <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> <span href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colonies</span> in <span href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</span> between <span href="/wiki/1788" title="1788">1788</span> and <span href="/wiki/1868" title="1868">1868</span> are probably the best examples of convict labour, as described above: during that period, Australia received thousands of <span href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transported</span> convict labourers, many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor misdemeanours in Britain or <span href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</span>.<br /> Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a <span href="/wiki/Prison_farm" title="Prison farm">prison farm</span>. In such cases, the pursuit of income from their productive labour may even overtake the preoccupation with punishment and/or reeducation as such of the prisoners, who are then at risk of being exploited as slave-like cheap labour (profit may be minor after expenses, e.g. on security).<br /> The British <span href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_Servitude_Act&action=edit" class="new" title="Penal Servitude Act">Penal Servitude Act</span> of 1853 substituted penal servitude for transportation. Sentences of penal servitude were served in convict prisons and were controlled by the <span href="/wiki/Home_Office" title="Home Office">Home Office</span> and the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Prison_Commissioner&action=edit" class="new" title="Prison Commissioner">Prison Commissioners</span>. After sentencing, convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted and their criminal record. First time offenders would be classified in the Star class; persons not suitable for the Star class, but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class; and habitual offenders would be classified in the <span href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivist</span> class. Care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another.<br /> <span name="Labour_camps" id="Labour_camps"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.telfa.org/img/countries/gr.jpg" alt="Penal labour" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Non-punitive prison labour</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Convict_lease" title="Convict lease">Convict lease</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">Chain gang</span> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-68814455500771823362007-11-24T07:17:00.001-08:002007-11-24T07:17:33.663-08:00<img src="http://www.tafths.org/ourpages/auto/2007/3/16/1174045148270/AC%2520Logo%2520New%2520_Color_.jpg" alt="William Howard School" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>William Howard School</b> is a co-educational comprehensive <span href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</span> on <i><span href="/wiki/Longtown" title="Longtown">Longtown</span> Road</i> (A6071) in <span href="/wiki/Brampton%2C_Carlisle%2C_Cumbria" title="Brampton, Carlisle, Cumbria">Brampton</span>, <span href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</span>, <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span> for pupils aged 11-18.<br /> <span name="The_school_today" id="The_school_today"></span><br /> <b> Tanzanian Link</b><br /> The school is named after Lord William Howard (1563–1640), who was the third son to <span href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Duke_of_Norfolk&action=edit" class="new" title="Thomas Duke of Norfolk">Thomas Duke of Norfolk</span>. He married Elizabeth, the daughter and co-heiress of <span href="/w/index.php?title=William_Lord_Dacres&action=edit" class="new" title="William Lord Dacres">William Lord Dacres</span>, from whom the <span href="/wiki/Carlisle" title="Carlisle">Carlisle</span> branch of the Howard Family is descended.<br /> The school used to be known as the <b>Irthing Valley <span href="/wiki/Secondary_modern_school" title="Secondary modern school">Secondary Modern School</span></b>. It merged with another school in Brampton called the <b>White House <span href="/wiki/Grammar_schools_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Grammar schools in the United Kingdom">Grammar School</span></b> situated on <i>Main Street</i>, in 1980 when comprehensive education replaced the selective education system. The newsreader <span href="/wiki/Anna_Ford" title="Anna Ford">Anna Ford</span> was a head girl of White House Grammar School in 1961.<br /> <span name="External_Links" id="External_Links"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-84761183808325555302007-11-23T08:55:00.001-08:002007-11-23T08:55:19.447-08:00 <b> Biography</b><br /> During his lifetime, he donated $100 million, mostly to the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</span> (under the alias "Mr. Smith"). The <span href="/wiki/Rochester_Institute_of_Technology" title="Rochester Institute of Technology">Rochester Institute of Technology</span> has a building dedicated to Mr. Eastman, in recognition of his support and substantial donations. He endowed the <span href="/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music" title="Eastman School of Music">Eastman School of Music</span> of the University of Rochester.<br /> MIT has a plaque of Eastman (the rubbing of which is traditionally considered by students to bring good luck) in recognition of his donation. Eastman also made substantial gifts to the <span href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute" title="Tuskegee Institute">Tuskegee Institute</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Hampton_Institute" title="Hampton Institute">Hampton Institute</span>. Upon his death, his entire estate went to the University of Rochester, where his name can be found on the Eastman Quadrangle of the River Campus. His former home at 900 East Avenue in Rochester, New York was opened as the <span href="/wiki/George_Eastman_House_International_Museum_of_Photography_and_Film" title="George Eastman House International Museum of Photography and Film">George Eastman House International Museum of Photography and Film</span> in 1949. On the 100th anniversary of his birth in 1954, Eastman was honored with a postage stamp from the United States Post Office.<br /> Eastman had a very fine business sense. He focused his company to making film when competition heated in the camera industry. By providing quality and affortable film to every camera manufacturer, Kodak managed to turn all competition into more business.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.rochester.edu/news/nbimages/eastman_rhees.jpg" alt="George Eastman" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> See also</b><br /> <br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-91253514020098954252007-11-22T08:11:00.001-08:002007-11-22T08:11:27.530-08:00 <b> Alphabetically</b><br /> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Alabama_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Alabama county name etymologies">Alabama</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_borough_and_census_area_name_etymologies" title="List of Alaska borough and census area name etymologies">Alaska</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Arizona_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Arizona county name etymologies">Arizona</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Arkansas_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Arkansas county name etymologies">Arkansas</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_California_county_name_etymologies" title="List of California county name etymologies">California</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Colorado_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Colorado county name etymologies">Colorado</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Connecticut_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Connecticut county name etymologies">Connecticut</span>* |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Delaware_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Delaware county name etymologies">Delaware</span>* |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Florida_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Florida county name etymologies">Florida</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Georgia_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Georgia county name etymologies">Georgia</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Hawaii_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Hawaii county name etymologies">Hawaii</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Idaho_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Idaho county name etymologies">Idaho</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Illinois_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Illinois county name etymologies">Illinois</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Indiana_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Indiana county name etymologies">Indiana</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Iowa_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Iowa county name etymologies">Iowa</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Kansas_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Kansas county name etymologies">Kansas</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Kentucky_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Kentucky county name etymologies">Kentucky</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Louisiana_parish_name_etymologies" title="List of Louisiana parish name etymologies">Louisiana</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Maine_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Maine county name etymologies">Maine</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Maryland_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Maryland county name etymologies">Maryland</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Massachusetts_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Massachusetts county name etymologies">Massachusetts</span>* |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Michigan_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Michigan county name etymologies">Michigan</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Minnesota_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Minnesota county name etymologies">Minnesota</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Mississippi_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Mississippi county name etymologies">Mississippi</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Missouri_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Missouri county name etymologies">Missouri</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Montana_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Montana county name etymologies">Montana</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Nebraska_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Nebraska county name etymologies">Nebraska</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Nevada_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Nevada county name etymologies">Nevada</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_New_Hampshire_county_name_etymologies" title="List of New Hampshire county name etymologies">New Hampshire</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_New_Jersey_county_name_etymologies" title="List of New Jersey county name etymologies">New Jersey</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_New_Mexico_county_name_etymologies" title="List of New Mexico county name etymologies">New Mexico</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_New_York_county_name_etymologies" title="List of New York county name etymologies">New York</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_North_Carolina_county_name_etymologies" title="List of North Carolina county name etymologies">North Carolina</span>* |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_North_Dakota_county_name_etymologies" title="List of North Dakota county name etymologies">North Dakota</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Ohio_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Ohio county name etymologies">Ohio</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Oklahoma_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Oklahoma county name etymologies">Oklahoma</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Oregon_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Oregon county name etymologies">Oregon</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Pennsylvania_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Pennsylvania county name etymologies">Pennsylvania</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Rhode_Island_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Rhode Island county name etymologies">Rhode Island</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_South_Carolina_county_name_etymologies" title="List of South Carolina county name etymologies">South Carolina</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_South_Dakota_county_name_etymologies" title="List of South Dakota county name etymologies">South Dakota</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Tennessee_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Tennessee county name etymologies">Tennessee</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Texas_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Texas county name etymologies">Texas</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Utah_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Utah county name etymologies">Utah</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Vermont_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Vermont county name etymologies">Vermont</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Virginia_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Virginia county name etymologies">Virginia</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Washington_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Washington county name etymologies">Washington</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_West_Virginia_county_name_etymologies" title="List of West Virginia county name etymologies">West Virginia</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Wisconsin_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Wisconsin county name etymologies">Wisconsin</span> |</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span href="/wiki/List_of_Wyoming_county_name_etymologies" title="List of Wyoming county name etymologies">Wyoming</span></span><img src="http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en/c/c0/TexasCountyMap.png" alt="Lists of U.S. county name etymologies" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> * Under construction<br /> <span name="Miscellaneous" id="Miscellaneous"></span><br /> <b> Miscellaneous</b><br /> <span name="External_link" id="External_link"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/County_%28United_States%29" title="County (United States)">County (United States)</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_name_etymologies" title="List of U.S. state name etymologies">List of U.S. state name etymologies</span> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-212062414057050172007-11-20T07:52:00.001-08:002007-11-20T07:52:29.145-08:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>Great Famine of 1315–1322</b> was the first of a series of large-scale crises that struck <span href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</span> early in the <span href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th century</span>, causing millions of deaths over an extended number of years and marking a clear end to an <span href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">earlier period of growth and prosperity</span> during the 11th through 13th centuries. Starting with bad weather in the spring of <span href="/wiki/1315" title="1315">1315</span>, universal crop failures lasted through <span href="/wiki/1316" title="1316">1316</span> until the summer of <span href="/wiki/1317" title="1317">1317</span>; Europe did not fully recover until <span href="/wiki/1322" title="1322">1322</span>. It was a period marked by extreme levels of <span href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">criminal activity</span>, disease and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Mass_death&action=edit" class="new" title="Mass death">mass death</span>, <span href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Cannibalism" title="Cannibalism">cannibalism</span>. It had consequences for <span href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Church</span>, State, European society and future calamities to follow in the 14th century.<br /> <span name="Background" id="Background"></span><br /> <b> Background</b><br /> In the spring of 1315, unusually heavy rain began in much of Europe. Throughout the spring and summer, it continued to rain and the temperature remained cool. Under these conditions grain could not ripen. Grain was brought indoors in urns and pots. The straw and hay for the animals could not be cured and there was no fodder for the livestock. The price of food began to rise. Food prices in England doubled between spring and midsummer. <span href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">Salt</span>, the only way to cure and preserve meat, was difficult to obtain because it could not be evaporated in the wet weather; it went from 30 shillings to 40 shillings. In <span href="/wiki/Lorraine_%28province%29" title="Lorraine (province)">Lorraine</span>, wheat prices increased by 320 percent and <span href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</span> could no longer afford <span href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</span>. Stores of grain for long-term emergencies were limited to the lords and nobles. Because of the general increased population pressures, even lower-than-average harvests meant some people would go hungry; there was little margin for failure. People began to harvest wild edible roots, plants, grasses, nuts, and bark in the forests.<br /> There are a number of documented incidents that show the extent of the famine. <span href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</span>, <span href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">King of England</span>, stopped at <span href="/w/index.php?title=Saint_Alba%27s&action=edit" class="new" title="Saint Alba's">Saint Alba's</span> on <span href="/wiki/August_10" title="August 10">August 10</span>, <span href="/wiki/1315" title="1315">1315</span> and no bread could be found for him or his entourage; it was a rare occasion in which the King of England, the most prosperous nation in Europe, was unable to eat. The French, under <span href="/wiki/Louis_X_of_France" title="Louis X of France">Louis X</span>, tried to invade <span href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</span>, but being in the low country of the <span href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</span>, the fields were soaked and the army became so bogged down they were forced to retreat, burning their provisions where they left them, unable to carry them out.<br /> In the spring of 1316, it continued to rain on a European population deprived of energy and reserve to sustain itself. All segments of society from nobles to peasants were affected, most of all the peasants, who represented 95% of the population and who had no <span href="/wiki/Social_safety_net" title="Social safety net">safety nets</span>. To provide some measure of relief, the future was mortgaged by slaughtering the draft animals; eating the seed grain; abandoning children to fend for themselves (see "<span href="/wiki/Hansel_and_Gretel" title="Hansel and Gretel">Hansel and Gretel</span>"); and, among old people, voluntarily refusing food in hopes of the younger generation surviving. The <span href="/wiki/Chroniclers" title="Chroniclers">chroniclers</span> of the time wrote of many incidents of cannibalism.<br /> The height of the famine was reached in 1317 as the wet weather hung on. Finally, in the summer the weather returned to its normal patterns. By now, however, people were so weakened by diseases such as <span href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</span>, <span href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</span>, <span href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</span>, and other sicknesses, and much of the seed stock had been eaten, that it was not until 1325 that the food supply returned to relatively normal conditions and the population began to increase again. Historians debate the toll but it is estimated that between 10%–25% of the population of many cities and towns died. While the <span href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</span> (1338–1375) would kill more, for many the Great Famine was worse. While the plague swept through an area in a matter of months, the Great Famine lingered for years, drawing out the suffering of those who would slowly starve to death, face cannibalism, child-murder and rampant crime.<br /> <span name="Consequences" id="Consequences"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.liebaart.org/figuren/schildkl.gif" alt="Great Famine of 1315-1317" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Great Famine</b><br /> The famine is called the Great Famine not only because of the number of people who died, or the vast geographic area that was affected, or the length of time it lasted, but also because of the lasting consequences.<br /> The first consequence was for the Church. No amount of <span href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</span> seemed effective against the causes of the famine. In a society where the final recourse to all problems had been religion, no amount of prayer was helping and the famine undermined the institutional authority of the Catholic Church. This helped lay the foundations for later movements that were deemed <span href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</span> by the Church because they opposed the <span href="/wiki/Papacy" title="Papacy">Papacy</span>.<br /> Second was the increase in criminal activity. Medieval Europe in the 13th century had already been a <span href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violent</span> culture where <span href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</span> and <span href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</span> were demonstrably more common than in modern times. With the famine even those who were not normally inclined to criminal activity would resort to any means to feed themselves or their family. After the famine, Europe took on a tougher and more violent edge; it had become an even less amicable place than during the 12th and 13th centuries. The effects of this could be seen across all segments of society, perhaps the most striking in the way warfare was conducted in the 14th century during the bloody <span href="/wiki/100_Years_War" title="100 Years War">100 Years War</span>, versus the 12th and 13th centuries when nobles were more likely to die by accident in <span href="/wiki/Tournament_%28medieval%29" title="Tournament (medieval)">tournament</span> games than on the field of battle.<br /> Third was the failure of the Medieval governments to deal with the crisis.<br /> Fourthly, the Great Famine marked a clear end to an unprecedented period of population growth that had started around <span href="/wiki/1050" title="1050">1050</span>; although some believe this had been slowing down for a few decades already, there is no doubt the Great Famine was a clear end of high population growth.<br /> Finally, the Great Famine would have consequences for future events in the 14th century such as the Black Death when an already weakened population would be struck again.<br /> <span name="Cannibalism_controversy" id="Cannibalism_controversy"></span><br /> <b> Consequences</b><br /> The evidence for cannibalism during the Great Famine is ambiguous and controversial for historians. There are reports from <span href="/wiki/Livonia" title="Livonia">Livonia</span> and <span href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</span>, as well as <span href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</span> and most other parts of Europe. Many historians have discounted it as being improbable that, in a time when the <span href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</span> was just starting and <span href="/wiki/Dante" title="Dante">Dante</span> was creating one of the greatest works of literature in history, people in Europe were eating one another. However, perhaps it says more about modern values, which attribute cannibalism to "the other", than about the realities of one's ancestors doing whatever it took to survive.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-57760388308184068932007-11-19T08:05:00.000-08:002007-11-19T08:06:03.214-08:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Big Dig</b> is the unofficial name of the <b>Central Artery/Tunnel Project</b> (<b>CA/T</b>), a <span href="/wiki/Megaproject" title="Megaproject">megaproject</span> that rerouted the <span href="/wiki/Central_Artery" title="Central Artery">Central Artery</span> (<span href="/wiki/Interstate_93" title="Interstate 93">Interstate 93</span>), the chief <span href="/wiki/Freeway" title="Freeway">controlled-access</span> <span href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highway</span> through the heart of <span href="/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</span>, into a 3.5 mile (5.6km) tunnel under the city. The project also included the construction of the <span href="/wiki/Ted_Williams_Tunnel" title="Ted Williams Tunnel">Ted Williams Tunnel</span> (extending <span href="/wiki/Interstate_90" title="Interstate 90">Interstate 90</span> to <span href="/wiki/Logan_International_Airport" title="Logan International Airport">Logan International Airport</span>), the <span href="/wiki/Zakim_Bunker_Hill_Bridge" title="Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge">Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge</span> over the <span href="/wiki/Charles_River" title="Charles River">Charles River</span>, and the <span href="/wiki/Rose_Kennedy_Greenway" title="Rose Kennedy Greenway">Rose Kennedy Greenway</span> in the space vacated by the previous I-93 elevated roadway. Initially, the plan was also to include a <span href="/wiki/North-South_Rail_Link" title="North-South Rail Link">rail connection</span> between Boston's two major train terminals.<br /> The final ramp opened <span href="/wiki/January_13" title="January 13">13 January</span> <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span>. The project's overall completion is at 99%.<br /> The Big Dig has been the most expensive highway project in the U.S.<br /> <span name="Historical_background" id="Historical_background"></span><br /> <b> Historical background</b><br /> The project was conceived in the 1970s by the <span href="/wiki/Boston_Transportation_Planning_Review" title="Boston Transportation Planning Review">Boston Transportation Planning Review</span> to replace the rusting elevated six-lane Central Artery. The expressway separated downtown from the waterfront, and was increasingly choked with bumper-to-bumper traffic. Business leaders were more concerned about access to Logan Airport, and pushed instead for a third harbor tunnel. In their second terms as governor and secretary of transportation, respectively, <span href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Michael Dukakis</span> and <span href="/wiki/Fred_Salvucci" title="Fred Salvucci">Fred Salvucci</span>, came up with the strategy of tying the two projects together—thereby combining the project that the business community supported with the project that they and the City of Boston supported..<br /> <span name="Obstacles" id="Obstacles"></span><br /> <b> Early planning</b><br /> In addition to these political and financial difficulties, the project faced several environmental and engineering obstacles.<br /> The downtown area through which the tunnels were to be dug was largely landfill, and included existing subway lines as well as innumerable pipes and utility lines that would have to be replaced or moved. Tunnel workers encountered many unexpected geological and archaeological barriers, ranging from glacial debris to foundations of buried houses and a number of sunken ships lying within the reclaimed land.<br /> The project received approval from state environmental agencies in 1991, after satisfying concerns including release of toxins by the excavation and the possibility of disrupting the homes of millions of <span href="/wiki/Rats" title="Rats">rats</span>, causing them to roam the streets of Boston in search of new housing. By the time the federal environmental clearances were delivered in 1994, the process had taken some seven years, during which time inflation greatly increased the project's original cost estimates.<br /> Reworking such a busy corridor without seriously restricting traffic flow required a number of state-of-the-art construction techniques. Because the old elevated highway (which remained in operation throughout the construction process) rested on pylons located throughout the designated dig area, engineers first utilized <span href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">slurry wall</span> techniques to create 120 ft.-deep concrete walls upon which the highway could rest. These concrete walls also stabilized the sides of the site, preventing cave-ins during the excavation process.<br /> The multilane interstates also had to pass under South Station's 7 tracks which carried over 40,000 commuters and 400 trains per day. In order to avoid multiple relocations of the train lines while the <span href="/wiki/Tunnelling" title="Tunnelling">tunnelling</span> advanced, as had been initially planned, a specially designed <span href="/wiki/Jack_%28device%29" title="Jack (device)">jack</span> was constructed in order to support the ground and tracks to allow the excavation to take place below. Ground freezing was also implemented in order to help stabilise the surrounding ground as the tunnel was excavated. This was the largest tunnelling project undertaken beneath railway lines anywhere in the world. The ground freezing enabled safer, more efficient <span href="/wiki/Excavation" title="Excavation">excavation</span>, and also assisted in environmental issues, as less contaminated fill needed to be exported than if a traditional cut and cover method had been applied.<br /> Other challenges included an existing subway tunnel crossing the path of the underground highway. In order to build <span href="/wiki/Slurry" title="Slurry">slurry</span> walls past this tunnel, it was necessary to dig beneath the tunnel and build an underground concrete bridge to support the tunnel's weight.<br /> <span name="Construction_phase" id="Construction_phase"></span><br /> <b> Obstacles</b><br /> The Central Artery/Tunnel Project was managed by the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority with design and construction supervised by a joint venture of <span href="/wiki/Bechtel_Corporation" title="Bechtel Corporation">Bechtel Corporation</span> and <span href="/wiki/Parsons_Brinckerhoff" title="Parsons Brinckerhoff">Parsons Brinckerhoff</span>. Due to the enormous size of the project—too large for any company to undertake alone—the design and construction of the Big Dig were broken up into dozens of smaller subprojects with well-defined interfaces between contractors. Major heavy-construction contractors on the project included <span href="/wiki/Jay_Cashman" title="Jay Cashman">Jay Cashman</span>, <span href="/wiki/Modern_Continental" title="Modern Continental">Modern Continental</span>, <span href="/wiki/Obayashi_Corporation" title="Obayashi Corporation">Obayashi Corporation</span>, <span href="/wiki/Perini" title="Perini">Perini Corporation</span>, <span href="/wiki/Peter_Kiewit_Sons%27_Incorporated" title="Peter Kiewit Sons' Incorporated">Peter Kiewit Sons' Incorporated</span>, <span href="/wiki/J.F._White" title="J.F. White">J.F. White</span>, and the Slattery division of <span href="/wiki/Skanska" title="Skanska">Skanska</span> USA. (Of those, Modern Continental was awarded the greatest gross value of contracts, joint ventures included.)<br /> The nature of the Charles River crossing had been a source of major controversy throughout the design phase of the project. Many environmental advocates preferred a river crossing entirely in tunnels, but this, along with 27 other plans, was rejected as too costly. Finally, with a deadline looming to begin construction on a separate project that would connect the <span href="/wiki/Tobin_Bridge" title="Tobin Bridge">Tobin Bridge</span> to the Charles River crossing, Salvucci overrode the objections and chose a variant of the plan known as "Scheme Z". This plan was considered to be reasonably cost-effective, but had the drawback of requiring highway ramps stacked up as high as 100 feet (30 m) immediately adjacent to the Charles River. The city of <span href="/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</span> objected to the visual impact of the chosen Charles River crossing design. It sued to revoke the project's environmental certificate and forced the project to redesign the river crossing again. Meanwhile, construction continued on the Tobin Bridge approach. By the time all parties agreed on the I-93 design, construction of the Tobin connector (today known as the "City Square Tunnel" for a <span href="/wiki/Charlestown%2C_Boston%2C_Massachusetts" title="Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts">Charlestown</span> area it bypasses) was far along, significantly adding to the cost of constructing the <span href="/wiki/U.S._Route_1" title="U.S. Route 1">U.S. Route 1</span> interchange and retrofitting the tunnel.<br /> Boston blue <span href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</span> and other soils extracted from the path of the tunnel were used to cap many local <span href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</span>, fill in the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Granite_Rail_Quarry&action=edit" class="new" title="Granite Rail Quarry">Granite Rail Quarry</span> in <span href="/wiki/Quincy%2C_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy</span>, and restore the surface of <span href="/wiki/Spectacle_Island_%28Massachusetts%29" title="Spectacle Island (Massachusetts)">Spectacle Island</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Boston_Harbor_Islands_National_Recreation_Area" title="Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area">Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area</span>.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Zakim_Bunker_Hill_Bridge" title="Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge">Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge</span>, designed by Swiss designer <span href="/wiki/Christian_Menn" title="Christian Menn">Christian Menn</span>, is the terminus of the project, connecting the underground highway with I-93 and US 1. The distinctive <span href="/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridge" title="Cable-stayed bridge">cable-stayed bridge</span> is supported by two forked towers connected to the span by cables and girders.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Leverett_Circle_Connector" title="Leverett Circle Connector">Leverett Circle Connector</span>, a companion bridge to the Zakim, began carrying traffic from I-93 to Storrow Drive in 1999. The project had been under consideration for years, but was opposed by the wealthy residents of the Beacon Hill neighborhood. However, it finally was accepted because it would funnel traffic bound for Storrow Drive and downtown Boston away from the mainline roadway. The Connector ultimately used a pair of ramps that had been constructed for Interstate 695, enabling the mainline I-93 to carry more traffic that would have used I-695 under the original Master Plan.<br /> When construction began, the project cost, including the Charles River crossing, was estimated at $5.8 billion. Eventual cost overruns were so high that the chairman of the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, <span href="/wiki/James_Kerasiotes" title="James Kerasiotes">James Kerasiotes</span>, was fired in 2000. His replacement had to commit to an $8.55 billion cap on federal contributions. Total expenses eventually passed $15 billion.<br /> <span name="Final_phases" id="Final_phases"></span><br /> <b> Construction phase</b><br /> On <span href="/wiki/January_17" title="January 17">January 17</span>, <span href="/wiki/2003" title="2003">2003</span>, the opening ceremony was held for the I-90 Connector Tunnel, extending the Massachusetts Turnpike (Interstate 90) east into the Ted Williams Tunnel, and onwards to Logan Airport. (The Williams tunnel had been completed and in limited use for commercial traffic and <span href="/wiki/High-occupancy_vehicle" title="High-occupancy vehicle">high-occupancy vehicles</span> since late 1995.) The westbound lanes opened on the afternoon of <span href="/wiki/January_18" title="January 18">January 18</span> and the eastbound lanes on <span href="/wiki/January_19" title="January 19">January 19</span>.<br /> The next phase, moving the elevated Interstate 93 underground, was completed in two stages: northbound lanes opened in March 2003 and southbound lanes (in a temporary configuration) on <span href="/wiki/December_20" title="December 20">December 20</span>, <span href="/wiki/2003" title="2003">2003</span>. A tunnel underneath Leverett Circle connecting eastbound Storrow Drive to I-93 North and the Tobin Bridge opened <span href="/wiki/December_19" title="December 19">December 19</span>, <span href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</span>, easing congestion at the circle. All southbound lanes of I-93 opened to traffic on <span href="/wiki/March_5" title="March 5">March 5</span>, <span href="/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</span>, including the left lane of the Zakim Bridge, and all of the refurbished Dewey Square Tunnel.<br /> By the end of December 2004, 95% of the Big Dig was completed. Major construction remained on the surface, including construction of final ramp configurations in the <span href="/wiki/North_End%2C_Boston%2C_Massachusetts" title="North End, Boston, Massachusetts">North End</span> and in the <span href="/wiki/South_Bay%2C_Boston%2C_Massachusetts" title="South Bay, Boston, Massachusetts">South Bay</span> interchange, and reconstruction of the surface streets. Many impact-mitigation projects (transit, pedestrian, bicycle, and parks) also remain, but some are in danger of cancellation due to cost overruns on the rest of the project.<br /> The final ramp downtown—exit 20B from <span href="/wiki/Interstate_93" title="Interstate 93">I-93</span> south to <span href="/w/index.php?title=Albany_Street_%28Boston%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Albany Street (Boston)">Albany Street</span>—opened <span href="/wiki/January_13" title="January 13">January 13</span>, <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span>.<br /> In 2006, the two Interstate 93 tunnels were dedicated as the <span href="/wiki/Thomas_P._O%27Neill_Jr._Tunnel" title="Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel">Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel</span>, after the former <span href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</span> speaker of the <span href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</span> from Massachusetts who pushed to have the Big Dig funded by the federal government.<br /> <span name="Problems" id="Problems"></span><br /> <b> Final phases</b><br /> <span name=".22Thousands_of_leaks.22"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.catf.us/projects/diesel/noescape/image-BostonBigDig.jpg" alt="Big Dig (Boston, Massachusetts)" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> "Thousands of leaks"</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Massachusetts_State_Police" title="Massachusetts State Police">Massachusetts State Police</span> searched the offices of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Aggregate_Industries&action=edit" class="new" title="Aggregate Industries">Aggregate Industries</span>, the largest concrete supplier for the underground portions of the project, in June 2005. They seized evidence of faked records that hid the poor quality of concrete delivered for the highway project. In May 2006, six executives of the company, including its general manager, were arrested and charged with crimes related to fraud. Immediately after the arrests, Massachusetts Governor <span href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</span> announced he would return $3,900 in political contributions from employees of Aggregate Industries.<br /> <span name="Fatal_ceiling_collapse" id="Fatal_ceiling_collapse"></span><br /> <b> Fatal ceiling collapse</b><br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-37765059681913640472007-11-18T08:11:00.001-08:002007-11-18T08:11:10.584-08:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Michaelhouse</b> is the name of one of the former colleges of the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</span>, that existed between <span href="/wiki/1323" title="1323">1323</span> and <span href="/wiki/1546" title="1546">1546</span>, when it was merged with <span href="/wiki/King%27s_Hall" title="King's Hall">King's Hall</span> to form <span href="/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College</span>. Michaelhouse was the second residential college to be founded, after <span href="/wiki/Peterhouse" title="Peterhouse">Peterhouse</span> (<span href="/wiki/1284" title="1284">1284</span>). Though <span href="/wiki/King%27s_Hall" title="King's Hall">King's Hall</span> was established earlier in <span href="/wiki/1317" title="1317">1317</span>, it did not acquire actual premises until its refoundation by Edward III in 1336.<br /> <span name="Foundation_and_Early_History" id="Foundation_and_Early_History"></span><br /> <b> Reformation and Dissolution</b><br /> The parish church of St Michael probably dates back to the foundation of the city of Cambridge itself, though no written records survive prior to a valuation of the living in 1217 (see William E. Lunt ed., <i>The Valuation of Norwich</i>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, 218). Substantially rebuilt by <span href="/wiki/Hervey_de_Stanton" title="Hervey de Stanton">Hervey de Stanton</span> in the decorated style, the Church was designed to serve both the parish and the college. The chancel is three bays long, a bay larger than the nave; both chancel and nave have side aisles. In 1324, de Stanton had suggested to the <span href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Ely" title="Bishop of Ely">bishop of Ely</span> that the master and fellows, who were all members of the clergy, could provide daily worship for the parish, since they already used the church as their chapel. Consequently, on 18 March 1324/5, the first Master of Michaelhouse, Walter de Buxton was inducted as vicar of St Michael's Church (Trinity Archives MS 25). Until the completion of a chapel for neighbouring Gonville Hall in 1396, both Michaelhouse and Gonville shared in the use of the church.<br /> Michaelhouse clergy contiunued to serve the parish until the dissolution of the College in 1546. Until the completion of Trinity College chapel under Mary Tudor in 1565, the scholars of Trinity continued to use St Michael's Church as its chapel. Indeed, when Trinity College was remodelled between 1708-18, the Tudor scholars' seats were transferred to St Michael's Church where they remain today. As successor of Hervey de Stanton's foundation, Trinity College continues to hold the patronage of the living of St Michael's and, during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, fellows in Holy Orders at Trinity College ministered as clergy (so-called 'chaplains') in St Michael's Church. The present minister retains this title.<br /> From the middle of the seventeenth century until the middle of the nineteenth century, the church was used as a venue of the episcopal and archidiaconal visitations for the Diocese of Ely. Similarly, Diocesan confirmation services would be held at St Michael's rather than in Ely Cathedral. On 11 November 1849, as the congregation was gathering for Sunday worship, the heating system caused the church roof to catch fire, resulting in the careful rebuilding of the roof by <span href="/wiki/George_Gilbert_Scott" title="George Gilbert Scott">George Gilbert Scott</span> the following year. Twenty years later, from 1870-2, <span href="/wiki/George_Gilbert_Scott_Junior" title="George Gilbert Scott Junior">George Gilbert Scott Junior</span> designed a fine new East Window and matching altarpiece for the chancel, while the ceiling and walls were painted by F.R. Leach.<br /> Ultimately, the parish was too small to be sustainable. Indeed, from as early as 1550, when it was suggested that it should be united with the parish of All Saints in the Jewry, St Michael's parish was threatened with fusion with neighbouring parishes. It was finally united with that <span href="/wiki/St_Mary_the_Great_with_St_Michael%2C_Cambridge" title="St Mary the Great with St Michael, Cambridge">Great St Mary</span>'s in 1908. Substantially refurbished in 2001-2002, the church now bears the College's name and serves as a weekday church, community centre, art gallery and a café. The chapel adjacent to de Stanton's grave is named in his memory and now, as then, forms the focal point for daily devotions at the church he built.<br /> <img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ac/Sent-Myhell-Armys--Arms-of-St-Michael-ca-1460-thumb.png" alt="Michaelhouse, Cambridge" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <span name="Trivia" id="Trivia"></span><br /> This article derives some information from an edition of 'Trinity College - An Historical Sketch' by <span href="/wiki/George_Macaulay_Trevelyan" title="George Macaulay Trevelyan">GM Trevelyan</span>, along with information from various individuals associated with the College and the University and Andreas Loewe's 'Michaelhouse: City Church, Cambridge College'. misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-13434699304805227622007-11-17T08:20:00.001-08:002007-11-17T08:20:50.604-08:00 <b></b><br /> There are a number of models regarding the ways in which <span href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religions</span> come into being and develop. Broadly speaking, these models fall into three categories:<br /> The models are not mutually exclusive. Multiple models may be seen to apply simultaneously, or different models may be seen as applying to different religions.<br /> <span name="Religions_as_social_construction" id="Religions_as_social_construction"></span><br /> Models which see religions as social constructions;<br /> Models which see religions as progressing toward higher, objective truth;<br /> Models which see a particular religion as absolutely true; <b> Religions as social construction</b><br /> This model holds that religion is the byproduct of the cognitive modules in the human brain that arose in our evolutionary past to deal with problems of survival and reproduction. Initial concepts of supernatural agents may arise in the tendency of humans to "over detect" the presence of other humans or predators (momentarily mistaking a vine for a snake). For instance, a man might report that he felt something sneaking up on him, but it vanished when he looked around.<br /> <span name="Opiate_of_the_masses_model" id="Opiate_of_the_masses_model"></span><br /> <img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Angkor_wat_temple.jpg/200px-Angkor_wat_temple.jpg" alt="Development of religion" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Religion as a Byproduct of Evolutionary Psychology</b><br /> In this model, held by individuals such as <span href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</span> and <span href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</span>, religion is seen as a tool concocted by the powerful to pacify and oppress the powerless. As Bertrand Russell wrote, "Religion in any shape or form is regarded as pernicious and deliberate falsehood, spread and encouraged by rulers and clerics in their own interests, since it is easier to control over the ignorant." In this model, the development of religion is seen as analogous to the growth of a cancer: and the most "developed" religion would be no religion at all. However, there is some question regarding the meaning of Karl Marx's image due to opium in his time being the only widely available pain killer (which, incidently, he had used). Thus, religion would be likened to a powerful pain killer, an idea that religious people would tend to support but that some of Marx's adepts may have misunderstood.<br /> <span name=".22Theory_of_religion.22_model"></span><br /> <b> "Theory of religion" model</b><br /> In the dogma selection model, religion is a set of beliefs which allow humans to encode useful survival tips and social structures. For example, early populations may not have understood microbes (germs), but thinking of illness as being caused by invisible demons that can hop on nearby people and possess them also supplies a mental model that reminds one to stay away from people that are coughing. The demon is an abstraction or approximation of germs and their infectious nature.<br /> Dogma that increases the survival of a group will spread using a kind of Darwinian selection process (see <span href="/wiki/Natural_Selection" title="Natural Selection">Natural Selection</span>; <span href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">meme</span>). The most useful dogmas spread because they keep the population that espouses them alive to bear more children. Over time good ideas may "mutate" as new generations or tribal branches alter them and the best variations spread using the selection process described above. Of course sometimes religious doctrine goes awry and ends up in large numbers of deaths, but it is the net benefits that count in the end.<br /> <span name="Religions_as_progressively_true" id="Religions_as_progressively_true"></span><br /> <b> Dogma selection model</b><br /> In contrast to the above models, the following models see religion as "progressively true." Proponents of these models state that their models differentiate between <span href="/wiki/Major_world_religions" title="Major world religions">major world religions</span> and the cults and false religions which develop in the above ways. Within these models, and in contrast to cults, religions reflect an essential Truth to one degree or another. The development of religion is therefore the course of religions aligning themselves more completely with the Truth, as the benefits of the teachings of each religion take effect within the development of humanity across time and place, as well as dealing with drifts of the religions from their founding principles or standing in need of elaborating the same essential truth in a new specific way - but all in relation to the same mysterious God, that is that this progression is divinely based or directed, rather than simply the occurrence of good people in history.<br /> 1) Within these models, religions are developed by prophets and teachers who bring genuine insight to religious thought. This contrasts with the "useful lie" model above, which sees religious thought as merely random changes which spread according to their usefulness.<br /> 2) Within these models, prophets such as Jesus and Muhammad are seen as outsiders leading a divine rebellion against the dominant and corrupt power structures to rescue humanity from destruction. Religion is therefore "grass-roots" in origin, rather than "imposed by the powerful." This contrasts strongly with the Opiate of the Masses model which sees religion as originating with the rich and powerful as a means of controlling the powerless.<br /> 3) Within these models, prophets are seen as having genuine insight and wisdom. This contrasts with the "Theory of Religion" model, which ascribes religious birth and development to some psychological or moral pathology in religious leaders and believers.<br /> <span name="Minor_Progression" id="Minor_Progression"></span><br /> <b> Religions as progressively true</b><br /> To a lesser degree of "progression in religion" is true within most of the religions - Judaism accepts a series of Prophets, progressively leading the Jews, from <span href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</span> down through <span href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</span> down to <span href="/wiki/Malachi" title="Malachi">Malachi</span>: see the <span href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</span>. Christianity accepts the same and adds <span href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</span>. Islam accepts those of Judaism and Christianity and adds <span href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</span>. Hinduism identifies a series of <span href="/wiki/Avatars" title="Avatars">Avatars</span>, to use their own terminology, from <span href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</span> through to <span href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</span>. Buddhism identifies a separate series of earlier <span href="/wiki/Buddhas#Types_of_Buddhas" title="Buddhas">Buddhas</span>. Zoroastrians also delineate earlier Saviors, or <span href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyants</span>, who came progressively leading the people forward. There are other examples. However this is a minor recognition because the figures referred to are accepted within the religion, or are partial because their references to other religions are not systematic<br /> <span name="Bah.C3.A1.27.C3.AD_prophecy_model" id="Bah.C3.A1.27.C3.AD_prophecy_model"></span><br /> <b> Minor Progression</b><br /> In the <span href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í</span> view, religion develops through a series of divine interventions from God, in the form of a <span href="/wiki/Manifestation_of_God" title="Manifestation of God">Manifestation of God</span>. Bahá'ís believe that <span href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</span> has sent a number of messengers in different times and cultures to bring divine revelation to humanity. Each of these messengers taught the truth of God, but later messengers provided more information to humanity, because humanity was ready to receive the more subtle teachings. Bahá'ís believe in <span href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</span>, the Jewish <span href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophets</span>, <span href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</span>, among others, as messengers of God. Bahá'í teachings also extend that progression indefinitely into the future. A particularized form of this is often present in other religions. The <span href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</span> have a certain heritage and disputed progression among them (clearly if Judaism accepted Christianity as the right progression then it wouldn't stay Judaism as we know it for example - the same is true for most of the religions we have today.) The <span href="/wiki/Dharmic_religions" title="Dharmic religions">Dharmic religions</span> similarly have a certain heritage and disputed progression. While often categorized as an Abrahamic religion, the Bahá'í faith claims to be a member of the progression of both Dharmic and Abrahamic categories and that <span href="/wiki/Manifestation_of_God#Other_possible_divine_teachers" title="Manifestation of God">other possible divine teachers</span> may have appeared directly among other cultural traditions as among the <span href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</span> and Australian <span href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">aboriginal</span> peoples. For all culturally based categories of religions, Bahá'ís believe <span href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27u%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Bahá'u'lláh">Bahá'u'lláh</span>, the founder of Bahá'í Faith, has brought the latest revelation from God.<br /> In summarizing this view, <span href="/wiki/Shoghi_Effendi" title="Shoghi Effendi">Shoghi Effendi</span>, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith stated:<br /> "The fundamental principle enunciated by Bahá'u'lláh, the followers of His Faith firmly believe, is that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process, that all the great religions of the world are divine in origin, that their basic principles are in complete harmony, that their aims and purposes are one and the same, that their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are complementary, that they differ only in the nonessential aspects of their doctrines, and that their missions represent successive stages in the spiritual evolution of human society." (Shoghi Effendi in <i>The Promised Day Is Come</i>, preface) <span href="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/PDC/pdc-1.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/PDC/pdc-1.html" rel="nofollow">[1]</span><br /> <i>See <span href="/wiki/Progressive_Revelation" title="Progressive Revelation">Progressive Revelation</span> for more information</i><br /> <span name="A_Study_of_History_model" id="A_Study_of_History_model"></span><br /> <b> Bahá'í prophecy model</b><br /> In <i><span href="/wiki/A_Study_of_History" title="A Study of History">A Study of History</span></i>, <span href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</span> argues that as civilizations decay, they experience a "schism in the soul," as the creative and spiritual impulse dies. In this environment of spiritual <span href="/wiki/Nadir" title="Nadir">nadir</span>, a few prophets (such as <span href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</span>, <span href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">Prophets</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Christ" title="Christ">Christ</span>) are given to extraordinary spiritual insight, born of the spiritual decay in the dying civilization. He describes such prophets as "surveyors of the course of secular civilization who report breaks in the road and breakdowns in the traffic, and plot a new spiritual course which will avoid those pitfalls."<br /> Thus, he argues, the "high points" in secular history coincide with the "low points" in spiritual history, and vice versa. He notes that the call of Abraham followed the defiance of God by the self-confident builders of the <span href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</span>; that the mission of Moses was to rescue God's chosen people from the fleshpots of <span href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</span>; that the prophets of Israel and Judah were inspired to preach <span href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">repentance</span> from the spiritual backslidings into which Israel lapsed in its 'land flowing with milk and honey' which <span href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</span> had provided for them; and that the Ministry of Christ, whose passion reflected the anguish of the Hellenic Time of Troubles, was the intervention of God Himself for the purpose of extending to the whole of Mankind the covenant he had made with Israel.<br /> While these new spiritual insights allow for the birth of a new religion and ultimately a new civilization, they are ultimately impermanent. This is due to their tendency to deteriorate after being institutionalized, as men of God degenerate into successful businessmen or men of politics. He describes the worst corruption of all, however, as "idolizing the terrestrial institution in which the <span href="/wiki/Church_Militant" title="Church Militant">Church Militant</span> on Earth is imperfectly though unavoidably embodied. A church is in danger of lapsing into this idolatry insofar as she lapses into believing herself to be, not merely a depository of truth, but the sole depository of the whole truth in a complete and definite revelation."<br /> Of the possibility that a new religion may arise in Western civilization to finally establish a permanent <span href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_heaven" title="Kingdom of heaven">kingdom of heaven</span>, he concludes that it is unlikely or impossible. "The manifest reason is exhibited by the nature of Society and the nature of Man. For Society is nothing but the common ground between the fields of action of personalities, and human personality has an innate capacity for evil as well as for good. The establishment of such a single Church Militant as we have imagined would not purge Man of <span href="/wiki/Original_Sin" title="Original Sin">Original Sin</span>. This World is a province of the Kingdom of God, but it is a rebellious province, and, in the nature of things, it will always remain so."<br /> <span name="Religions_as_absolutely_true" id="Religions_as_absolutely_true"></span><br /> <b> A Study of History model</b><br /> In the following models, religions are seen as absolutely and unchangingly True. They contrast with both the first group of models (which held religion to be false), and the second group (which held religion to develop over time).<br /> <span name="Jewish_model" id="Jewish_model"></span><br /> <b> Religions as absolutely true</b><br /> Traditional Judaism teaches that God relates to humanity through a series of <span href="/wiki/Covenant" title="Covenant">covenants</span>, which are initiated by him, and in which God promises to perform certain acts on the condition that humans "keep their side of the bargain." Jews believe that they are bound by the <span href="/wiki/Mosaic_law" title="Mosaic law">Mosaic law</span>, which includes the Ten Commandments and additional teachings, especially those found in <span href="/wiki/Leviticus" title="Leviticus">Leviticus</span> and the later <span href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</span>. All non-Jews are under the <span href="/wiki/Noahide_Laws" title="Noahide Laws">Noahide Laws</span>, established by God after the <span href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">global flood</span> which wiped out <span href="/wiki/Antediluvian" title="Antediluvian">antediluvian</span> civilization. Those who fulfill their part of the covenant are granted the <span href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</span>.<br /> <span name="Exclusivist_models" id="Exclusivist_models"></span><br /> <b> Jewish model</b><br /> Many religions which claim an exclusive revelation from God assert that theirs is the "One True Religion," and all others are false, because they do not originate from the same source. <span href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</span> can be seen in many religions, particularly in certain branches of <span href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</span> and <span href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</span>. In such a model, the development of "True Religion" is inexorably tied to a single prophet and/or holy book, and all other religions are described as "non-religion," in that they originate either from human ignorance, or from the evil influence of deceivers, <span href="/wiki/False_prophet" title="False prophet">false prophets</span>, or even <span href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</span>. However, Judaism is alone in its belief that both the written and oral Torah, the basis of Judaism, was in fact received by the whole Jewish nation, not a single prophet, on mount Sinai by God himself.<br /> <span name="Role_of_charismatic_figures_in_the_development_of_religions" id="Role_of_charismatic_figures_in_the_development_of_religions"></span><br /> <b> Exclusivist models</b><br /> Many religions have been deeply influenced by <span href="/wiki/Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic</span> leaders, such as <span href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</span>, <span href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</span>, Saint <span href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</span>, <span href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</span>, <span href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith%2C_Jr." title="Joseph Smith, Jr.">Joseph Smith</span>, etc. These leaders are either the central teacher and founder of the religion (e.g. Muhammad, Jesus, or Gautama) or reformers or prominent persons. Failed or violent new religions were also founded by charismatic leaders, such as <span href="/wiki/Jim_Jones" title="Jim Jones">Jim Jones</span>.<br /> There is some similarity to the role played by charismatic figures in politics. See <span href="/wiki/List_of_charismatic_leaders" title="List of charismatic leaders">list of charismatic leaders</span>.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.gender.no/Alexandria/110/RusnesIngrid.jpg" alt="Development of religion" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-30139934166462259382007-11-16T10:46:00.001-08:002007-11-16T10:46:44.861-08:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>special theory of relativity</b> was proposed in <span href="/wiki/1905" title="1905">1905</span> by <span href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</span> in his article "<span href="/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis_Papers#Special_relativity" title="Annus Mirabilis Papers">On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies</span>". Some three centuries earlier, <span href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galileo's principle of relativity</span> had stated that all <span href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">uniform motion</span> was relative, and that there was no absolute and well-defined state of rest; a person on the deck of a ship may be at rest in his opinion, but someone observing from the shore would say that he was moving. Einstein's theory generalized <span href="/wiki/Galilean_relativity" title="Galilean relativity">Galilean relativity</span> from only mechanics to all laws of physics including <span href="/wiki/Electrodynamics" title="Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</span>. To stress this point, Einstein not only widened the postulate of relativity, but added the second postulate - that all observers will always measure the <span href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</span> to be the same no matter what their state of uniform linear motion is.<br /> This theory has a variety of surprising consequences that seem to violate common sense, but all have been <span href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html" class="external text" title="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html" rel="nofollow">experimentally verified</span>. Special relativity overthrows <span href="/wiki/Newtonian_physics" title="Newtonian physics">Newtonian notions of absolute space and time</span> by stating that distance and <span href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</span> depend on the observer, and that time and space are perceived differently, depending on the observer. It yields the equivalence of <span href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</span> and <span href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</span>, as expressed in the <span href="/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalence" title="Mass-energy equivalence">mass-energy equivalence</span> formula <i>E</i> = <i>mc</i>², where <i>c</i> is the speed of light in a vacuum. Special relativity agrees with Newtonian mechanics in their common realm of applicability, in experiments in which all velocities are small compared to the speed of light.<br /> The theory was called "special" because it applies the <span href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">principle of relativity</span> only to <span href="/wiki/Inertial_frames" title="Inertial frames">inertial frames</span>. Einstein developed <span href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</span> to apply the principle generally, that is, to any frame, and that theory includes the effects of <span href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</span>. Special relativity does not account for gravity, but it can deal with accelerations.<br /> Although special relativity makes some quantities relative, such as time, that we would have imagined to be absolute based on everyday experience, it also makes absolute some others that we would have thought were relative. In particular, it states that the speed of light is the same for all observers, even if they are in motion relative to one another. Special relativity reveals that <i>c</i> is not just the velocity of a certain phenomenon - light - but rather a fundamental feature of the way space and time are tied together. In particular, special relativity states that it is impossible for any material object to accelerate to light speed.<br /> <i>For history and motivation, see the article:</i> <b><span href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">history of special relativity</span></b><br /> <span name="Postulates" id="Postulates"></span><br /> <b> Postulates</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">principle of relativity</span>, which states that there is no stationary reference frame, dates back to <span href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</span>, and was incorporated into Newtonian Physics. However, in the late 19 century, the existence of <span href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic waves</span> led some physicists to suggest that the universe was filled with a substance known as "<span href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">aether</span>", which would act as the medium through which these waves, or vibrations traveled. The aether was thought to constitute an absolute reference frame against which speeds could be measured. In other words, the aether was the only fixed or motionless thing in the universe. Aether supposedly had some wonderful properties: it was sufficiently elastic that it could support electromagnetic waves, and those waves could interact with matter, yet it offered no resistance to bodies passing through it. The results of various experiments, including the <span href="/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experiment" title="Michelson-Morley experiment">Michelson-Morley experiment</span>, indicated that the Earth was always 'stationary' relative to the aether — something that was difficult to explain, since the Earth is in orbit around the Sun. Einstein's elegant solution was to discard the notion of an aether and an absolute state of rest. Special relativity is formulated so as to not assume that any particular frame of reference is special; rather, in relativity, any reference frame moving with uniform motion will observe the same laws of physics. In particular, the speed of light in a vacuum is always measured to be <i>c</i>, even when measured by multiple systems that are moving at different (but constant) velocities.<br /> <span name="Consequences" id="Consequences"></span><br /> <b> Lack of an absolute reference frame</b><br /> <i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Consequences_of_special_relativity" title="Consequences of special relativity">Consequences of special relativity</span></i><br /> Einstein has said that all of the consequences of special relativity can be derived from examination of the <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformations" title="Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</span>.<br /> These transformations, and hence special relativity, lead to different physical predictions than Newtonian mechanics when relative velocities become comparable to the speed of light. The speed of light is so much larger than anything humans encounter that some of the effects predicted by relativity are initially counter-intuitive:<br /> <span name="Reference_frames.2C_coordinates_and_the_Lorentz_transformation" id="Reference_frames.2C_coordinates_and_the_Lorentz_transformation"></span><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">Time dilation</span></b> — the time lapse between two events is not invariant from one observer to another, but is dependent on the relative speeds of the observers' reference frames (e.g., the <span href="/wiki/Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">twin paradox</span> which concerns a twin who flies off in a spaceship traveling near the speed of light and returns to discover that his twin has aged much more).<br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">Relativity of simultaneity</span></b> — two events happening in two different locations that occur simultaneously to one observer, may occur at different times to another observer (lack of <span href="/wiki/Absolute_simultaneity" title="Absolute simultaneity">absolute simultaneity</span>).<br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Lorentz_contraction" title="Lorentz contraction">Lorentz contraction</span></b> — the dimensions (e.g., length) of an object as measured by one observer may be smaller than the results of measurements of the same object made by another observer (e.g., the <span href="/wiki/Ladder_paradox" title="Ladder paradox">ladder paradox</span> involves a long ladder traveling near the speed of light and being contained within a smaller garage).<br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula" title="Velocity-addition formula">Composition of velocities</span></b> — velocities (and speeds) do not simply 'add', for example if a rocket is moving at ⅔ the speed of light relative to an observer, and the rocket fires a missile at ⅔ of the speed of light relative to the rocket, the missile does not exceed the speed of light relative to the observer. (In this example, the observer would see the missile travel with a speed of 12/13 the speed of light.)<br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</span> and <span href="/wiki/Momentum#Momentum_in_relativistic_mechanics" title="Momentum">momentum</span></b> — as an object's velocity approaches the speed of light from an observer's point of view, its mass appears to increase thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference.<br /> <b>Equivalence of <span href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</span> and <span href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</span>, <span href="/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalence" title="Mass-energy equivalence"><i>E</i> = <i>mc</i>²</span></b> — The energy content of an object at rest with mass m equals <span class="texhtml"><i>m</i><i>c</i></span>. Conservation of energy implies that in any reaction a decrease of the sum of the masses of particles must be accompanied by an increase in kinetic energies of the particles after the reaction. Similarly, the mass of an object can be increased by taking in kinetic energies. <b> Consequences</b><br /> <i>Full article: <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformations</span></i><br /> Relativity theory depends on "<span href="/wiki/Reference_frame" title="Reference frame">reference frames</span>". A reference frame is an observational perspective in space at rest, or in uniform motion, from which a position can be measured along 3 spatial axes. In addition, a reference frame has the ability to determine measurements of the time of events using a 'clock' (any reference device with uniform periodicity).<br /> An event is an occurrence that can be assigned a single unique time and location in space relative to a reference frame: it is a "point" in <span href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">space-time</span>. Since the speed of light is constant in relativity in each and every reference frame, pulses of light can be used to unambiguously measure distances and refer back the times that events occurred to the clock, even though light takes time to reach the clock after the event has transpired.<br /> For example, the explosion of a firecracker may be considered to be an "event". We can completely specify an event by its four space-time coordinates: The time of occurrence and its 3-dimensional spatial location define a reference point. Let's call this reference frame S.<br /> In relativity theory we often want to calculate the position of a point from a different reference point.<br /> Suppose we have a second reference frame S', whose spatial axes and clock exactly coincide with that of S at time zero, but it is moving at a constant velocity <img class="tex" alt="v," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/2/d/3/2d3fdc651d296cf7a5bde9d58fa58c47.png" /> with respect to S along the <img class="tex" alt="x," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/6/b/2/6b206a28e60f665e235f89f460448467.png" />-axis.<br /> Since there is no absolute reference frame in relativity theory, a concept of 'moving' doesn't strictly exist, as everything is always moving with respect to some other reference frame. Instead, any two frames that move at the same speed in the same direction are said to be <i>comoving</i>. Therefore S and S' are not <i>comoving</i>.<br /> Let's define the <span href="/wiki/Spacetime#Basic_concepts" title="Spacetime">event</span> to have space-time coordinates <img class="tex" alt="(t, x, y, z)," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/d/8/0d871653a78a18c3218d0d8b87d03fc9.png" /> in system S and <img class="tex" alt="(t', x', y', z')," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/1/0/b100279dfc8b3561ac2e3b52e9373ce7.png" /> in S'. Then the Lorentz transformation specifies that these coordinates are related in the following way:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="t' = gamma left(t - frac{v x}{c^{2}} right)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/e/4/1/e41f7257108e60de749e8957f66c293d.png" /><br /> <img class="tex" alt="x' = gamma (x - v t)," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/4/d/c/4dca55a09d494349faad02daa8c1b2b8.png" /><br /> <img class="tex" alt="y' = y," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/d/2/9/d29a7f126abe0a92f5bb08e8260bd420.png" /><br /> <img class="tex" alt="z' = z," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/4/b/7/4b724820c828fab4cd0d9b77b26b1073.png" /><br /> where <img class="tex" alt="gamma = frac{1}{sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/3/d/d/3ddd7a11a3c82d824dc8204b3c740d49.png" /> is called the <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_factor" title="Lorentz factor">Lorentz factor</span> and <img class="tex" alt="c," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/8/1/08163b03d3a58471d7f88fc4e581a282.png" /> is the <span href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</span> in a vacuum.<br /> The <img class="tex" alt="y," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/e/c/9/ec9ff0a12771e750c2685d3b89a37c79.png" /> and <img class="tex" alt="z," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/7/7/6/77698ae92ac0435f8da1e266eeb528e3.png" /> coordinates are unaffected, but the <img class="tex" alt="x," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/6/b/2/6b206a28e60f665e235f89f460448467.png" /> and <img class="tex" alt="t," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/c/6/0c68620ee2ea4f1286fcd672a47ea080.png" /> axes are mixed up by the transformation. In a way this transformation can be understood as a hyperbolic rotation.<br /> A quantity invariant under Lorentz transformations is known as a <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_scalar" title="Lorentz scalar">Lorentz scalar</span>.<br /> <span name="Simultaneity" id="Simultaneity"></span><br /> <b> Reference frames, coordinates and the Lorentz transformation</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">Relativity of simultaneity</span></i> <b> Simultaneity</b><br /> Writing the Lorentz Transformation and its inverse in terms of coordinate differences we get<br /> <img class="tex" alt="Delta t' = gamma left(Delta t - frac{v Delta x}{c^{2}} right)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/2/0/0/200c7cbba50324d4142014084c5d8488.png" /><br /> <img class="tex" alt="Delta x' = gamma (Delta x - v Delta t)," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/4/c/3/4c3d2c2a1b29b62965b66e1a805aa571.png" /><br /> and<br /> <img class="tex" alt="Delta t = gamma left(Delta t' + frac{v Delta x'}{c^{2}} right)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/0/c/80c26dfa1fb90531324359ed0b343d79.png" /><br /> <img class="tex" alt="Delta x = gamma (Delta x' + v Delta t')," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/9/5/a/95ab5fb9a54b356f630bc3f8a1aacd25.png" /><br /> Suppose we have a clock at rest in the unprimed system S. Two consecutive ticks of this clock are then characterized by <b><span class="texhtml">Δ<i>x</i> = 0</span></b>. If we want to know the relation between the times between these ticks as measured in both systems, we can use the first equation and find:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="Delta t' = gamma Delta t qquad ( ," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/3/8/8/388192d3fa4bedbd171729687c9ba499.png" /> for events satisfying <img class="tex" alt="Delta x = 0 )," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/1/e/7/1e72d4936ea0c297c0e3c0dd3d07a5ea.png" /><br /> This shows that the time <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>t</i>'</span> between the two ticks as seen in the 'moving' frame S' is larger than the time <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>t</i></span> between these ticks as measured in the rest frame of the clock. This phenomenon is called <span href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">time dilation</span>.<br /> Similarly, suppose we have a <span href="/wiki/Measuring_rod" title="Measuring rod">measuring rod</span> at rest in the unprimed system. In this system, the length of this rod is written as <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>x</i></span>. If we want to find the length of this rod as measured in the 'moving' system S', we must make sure to measure the distances <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i>'</span> to the end points of the rod simultaneously in the primed frame S'. In other words, the measurement is characterized by <b><span class="texhtml">Δ<i>t</i>' = 0</span></b>, which we can combine with the fourth equation to find the relation between the lengths <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>x</i></span> and <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>x</i>'</span>:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="Delta x' = frac{Delta x}{gamma} qquad ( ," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/2/b/c/2bc787848ed680ebda1c3cfbe2d90e50.png" /> for events satisfying <img class="tex" alt="Delta t' = 0 )," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/3/6/6/3669eefd79bd0397b462f2bdc31737ac.png" /><br /> This shows that the length <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>x</i>'</span> of the rod as measured in the 'moving' frame S' is shorter than the length <span class="texhtml">Δ<i>x</i></span> in its own rest frame. This phenomenon is called <i><span href="/wiki/Lorentz-FitzGerald_contraction_hypothesis" title="Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction hypothesis">length contraction</span></i> or <i>Lorentz contraction</i>.<br /> These effects are not merely appearances; they are explicitly related to our way of measuring <i>time intervals</i> between events which occur at the same place in a given coordinate system (called "co-local" events). These time intervals will be <i>different</i> in another coordinate system moving with respect to the first, unless the events are also simultaneous. Similarly, these effects also relate to our measured distances between separated but simultaneous events in a given coordinate system of choice. If these events are not co-local, but are separated by distance (space), they will <i>not</i> occur at the same <i>spacial distance</i> from each other when seen from another moving coordinate system.<br /> See also the <span href="/wiki/Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">twin paradox</span>.<br /> <span name="Causality_and_prohibition_of_motion_faster_than_light" id="Causality_and_prohibition_of_motion_faster_than_light"></span><br /> <b> Time dilation and length contraction</b><br /> In diagram 2 the interval AB is 'time-like'; <i>i.e.</i>, there is a frame of reference in which event A and event B occur at the same location in space, separated only by occurring at different times. If A precedes B in that frame, then A precedes B in all frames. It is hypothetically possible for matter (or information) to travel from A to B, so there can be a causal relationship (with A the cause and B the effect).<br /> The interval AC in the diagram is 'space-like'; <i>i.e.</i>, there is a frame of reference in which event A and event C occur simultaneously, separated only in space. However there are also frames in which A precedes C (as shown) and frames in which C precedes A. If it was possible for a cause-and-effect relationship to exist between events A and C, then paradoxes of causality would result. For example, if A was the cause, and C the effect, then there would be frames of reference in which the effect preceded the cause. Although this in itself won't give rise to a paradox, one can show that faster than light signals can be sent back into one's own past. A causal paradox can then be constructed by sending the signal if and only if no signal was received previously.<br /> Therefore, one of the consequences of special relativity is that (assuming <span href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</span> is to be preserved), no information or material object can travel <span href="/wiki/Faster_than_light" title="Faster than light">faster than light</span>. On the other hand, the logical situation is not as clear in the case of general relativity, so it is an open question whether or not there is some <span href="/wiki/Chronology_protection_conjecture" title="Chronology protection conjecture">fundamental principle</span> that preserves causality (and therefore prevents motion faster than light) in general relativity.<br /> Even without considerations of causality, there are other strong reasons why faster-than-light travel is forbidden by special relativity. For example, if a constant force is applied to an object for a limitless amount of time, then integrating <i>F=dp/dt</i> gives a momentum that grows without bound, but this is simply because <span class="texhtml"><i>p</i> = <i>m</i>γ<i>v</i></span> approaches infinity as <i>v</i> approaches <i>c</i>. To an observer who is not accelerating, it appears as though the object's inertia is increasing, so as to produce a smaller acceleration in response to the same force. This behavior is in fact observed in <span href="/wiki/Particle_accelerators" title="Particle accelerators">particle accelerators</span>.<br /> See also the <span href="/wiki/Tachyonic_Antitelephone" title="Tachyonic Antitelephone">Tachyonic Antitelephone</span>.<br /> <span name="Composition_of_velocities" id="Composition_of_velocities"></span><br /> <b> Causality and prohibition of motion faster than light</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula" title="Velocity-addition formula">Velocity-addition formula</span></i> <b> Composition of velocities</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity" title="Mass in special relativity">Mass in special relativity</span></i> <b> Mass, momentum, and energy</b><br /> Introductory physics courses and some older textbooks on special relativity sometimes define a <i><span href="/wiki/Relativistic_mass" title="Relativistic mass">relativistic mass</span></i> which increases as the velocity of a body increases. According to the geometric interpretation of special relativity, this is often deprecated and the term 'mass' is reserved to mean <span href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</span> and is thus independent of the inertial frame, i.e., <i>invariant</i>.<br /> Using the relativistic mass definition, the mass of an object may vary depending on the observer's inertial frame in the same way that other properties such as its length may do so. Defining such a quantity may sometimes be <i>useful</i> in that doing so simplifies a calculation by restricting it to a specific frame. For example, consider a body with an invariant mass m moving at some velocity relative to an observer's reference system. That observer defines the <i>relativistic mass</i> of that body as:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="M = gamma m!" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/1/4/b14f7fe6981082bc7c748bace9149e70.png" /><br /> "Relativistic mass" should not be confused with the "longitudinal" and "transverse mass" definitions that were used around 1900 and that were based on an inconsistent application of the laws of Newton: those used <i>f=ma</i> for a variable mass, while relativistic mass corresponds to Newton's dynamic mass in which <i>p=Mv</i> and <i>f=dp/dt</i>.<br /> Note also that the body does <i>not</i> actually become more massive in its <i>proper</i> frame, since the relativistic mass is only different for an observer in a different frame. The <i>only</i> mass that is frame independent is the invariant mass. When using the relativistic mass, the applicable reference frame should be specified if it isn't already obvious or implied. It also goes almost without saying that the increase in relativistic mass does not come from an increased number of atoms in the object. Instead, the relativistic mass of each atom and subatomic particle has increased.<br /> Physics textbooks sometimes use the relativistic mass as it allows the students to utilize their knowledge of Newtonian physics to gain some intuitive grasp of relativity in their frame of choice (usually their own!). "Relativistic mass" is also consistent with the concepts "time dilation" and "length contraction".<br /> <span name="Force" id="Force"></span><br /> <b> Relativistic mass</b><br /> The classical definition of ordinary force f is given by <span href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's Second Law</span> in its original form:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="vec f = dvec p/dt " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/a/0/e/a0e352ec4c36fe245d8e8f12aefae9b1.png" /><br /> and this is valid in relativity.<br /> Many modern textbooks rewrite Newton's Second Law as<br /> <img class="tex" alt="vec f = M vec a " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/a/d/bad7a3dfa148b8d91460887479cdc192.png" /><br /> This form is not valid in relativity or in other situations where the relativistic mass <i>M</i> is varying.<br /> This formula can be replaced in the relativistic case by<br /> <img class="tex" alt="vec f = gamma m vec a + gamma^3 m frac{vec v cdot vec a}{c^2} vec v" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/6/c/3/6c3adfb901ca0e8b78ad13a65731c57c.png" /><br /> As seen from the equation, ordinary force and acceleration vectors are not necessarily parallel in relativity.<br /> However the four-vector expression relating <span href="/wiki/Four-force" title="Four-force">four-force</span> <img class="tex" alt="F^mu," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/6/b/5/6b5c9f34a867390e015a73de6b4c7768.png" /> to <span href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</span> m and <span href="/wiki/Four-acceleration" title="Four-acceleration">four-acceleration</span> <img class="tex" alt="A^mu," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/5/d/85dad09955d0591fe6b69159d8855327.png" /> restores the same equation form<br /> <img class="tex" alt="F^mu = mA^mu," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/c/c/2/cc2b126adb7a9ccdc2800d87e218bcac.png" /><br /> <span name="The_geometry_of_space-time" id="The_geometry_of_space-time"></span><br /> <b> Force</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</span></i> <b> The geometry of space-time</b><br /> Here, we see how to write the equations of special relativity in a manifestly <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_covariance" title="Lorentz covariance">Lorentz covariant</span> form. The position of an event in spacetime is given by a <span href="/wiki/Contravariant" title="Contravariant">contravariant</span> four vector whose components are:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="x^nu=left(t, x, y, zright)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/2/0/b/20bf8ba56d3be4008a6a2952d9a437a2.png" /><br /> That is, <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i> = <i>z</i></span>. Superscripts are contravariant indices in this section rather than exponents except when they indicate a square. Subscripts are <span href="/wiki/Covariant" title="Covariant">covariant</span> indices which also range from zero to three as with the spacetime gradient of a field φ:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="partial_0 phi = frac{partial phi}{partial t}, quad partial_1 phi = frac{partial phi}{partial x}, quad partial_2 phi = frac{partial phi}{partial y}, quad partial_3 phi = frac{partial phi}{partial z}." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/3/5/035de9ff524fa8351c1b67a736b5ccc8.png" /><br /> <span name="Metric_and_transformations_of_coordinates" id="Metric_and_transformations_of_coordinates"></span><br /> <b> Physics in spacetime</b><br /> Having recognised the four-dimensional nature of spacetime, we are driven to employ the Minkowski metric, η, given in components (valid in any <span href="/wiki/Inertial_reference_frame" title="Inertial reference frame">inertial reference frame</span>) as:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="eta_{alphabeta} = begin{pmatrix}<br /> -c^2 & 0 & 0 & 0<br /> 0 & 1 & 0 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 1 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 0 & 1<br /> end{pmatrix}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/a/5/6/a56bbc8865c96d757222af4927f7c91a.png" /><br /> Its reciprocal is:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="eta^{alphabeta} = begin{pmatrix}<br /> -1/c^2 & 0 & 0 & 0<br /> 0 & 1 & 0 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 1 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 0 & 1<br /> end{pmatrix}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/a/e/e/aee78a5d8bc51896cb05ba464cfce283.png" /><br /> Then we recognize that co-ordinate transformations between inertial reference frames are given by the <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</span> <span href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">tensor</span> Λ. For the special case of motion along the x-axis, we have:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="Lambda^{mu'}{}_nu = begin{pmatrix}<br /> gamma & -betagamma/c & 0 & 0<br /> -betagamma c & gamma & 0 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 1 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 0 & 1<br /> end{pmatrix}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/2/e/b/2eb20e96de68a1847b4c14c7f8308596.png" /><br /> which is simply the matrix of a boost (like a rotation) between the <i>x</i> and <i>t</i> coordinates. Where μ' indicates the row and ν indicates the column. Also, β and γ are defined as:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="beta = frac{v}{c}, gamma = frac{1}{sqrt{1-beta^2}}." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/5/d/05dbd54b210913ced0694b00b6c68e6f.png" /><br /> More generally, a transformation from one inertial frame (ignoring translations for simplicity) to another must satisfy:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="eta_{alphabeta} = eta_{mu'nu'} Lambda^{mu'}{}_alpha Lambda^{nu'}{}_beta !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/9/4/e/94eac545386aa4b3fffe2079fd843d5f.png" /><br /> where there is an implied summation of <img class="tex" alt="mu' !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/f/d/f/fdfbfd67ccba1c81ca34f983664a067b.png" /> and <img class="tex" alt="nu' !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/b/c/bbc801460b176072342e9bed0ab494bd.png" /> from 0 to 3 on the right-hand side in accordance with the <span href="/wiki/Einstein_notation" title="Einstein notation">Einstein summation convention</span>. The <span href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group" title="Poincaré group">Poincaré group</span> is the most general group of transformations which preserves the <span href="/wiki/Minkowski_metric" title="Minkowski metric">Minkowski metric</span> and this is the physical symmetry underlying special relativity.<br /> All proper physical quantities are given by tensors. So to transform from one frame to another, we use the well known <span href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">tensor transformation law</span><br /> <img class="tex" alt="T^{left[i_1',i_2',...i_p'right>}_{left[j_1',j_2',...j_q'right]} = <br /> Lambda^{i_1'}{}_{i_1}Lambda^{i_2'}{}_{i_2}...Lambda^{i_p'}{}_{i_p}<br /> Lambda_{j_1'}{}^{j_1}Lambda_{j_2'}{}^{j_2}...Lambda_{j_q'}{}^{j_q}<br /> T^{left[i_1,i_2,...i_pright]}_{left[j_1,j_2,...j_qright]}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/5/9/85952e7f57d85491bacca39c7eb50a98.png" /]<br /> Where <img class="tex" alt="Lambda_{j_k'}{}^{j_k} !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/1/2/1/121820c3f09f47133fa2f786215f8ee7.png" /> is the reciprocal matrix of <img class="tex" alt="Lambda^{j_k'}{}_{j_k} !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/3/b/9/3b9e81ec56f5ecc1fd839b9272259fa2.png" />.<br /> To see how this is useful, we transform the position of an event from an unprimed co-ordinate system <i>S</i> to a primed system <i>S'</i>, we calculate<br /> <img class="tex" alt="<br /> begin{pmatrix}<br /> t' x' y' z'<br /> end{pmatrix} = x^{mu'}=Lambda^{mu'}{}_nu x^nu=<br /> begin{pmatrix}<br /> gamma & -betagamma/c & 0 & 0<br /> -betagamma c & gamma & 0 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 1 & 0<br /> 0 & 0 & 0 & 1<br /> end{pmatrix}<br /> begin{pmatrix}<br /> t x y z<br /> end{pmatrix} =<br /> begin{pmatrix}<br /> gamma t- gammabeta x/c<br /> gamma x - beta gamma ct y z<br /> end{pmatrix}<br /> " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/c/8/0/c8016c400d6810228d972b8fd919d77b.png" /><br /> which is the Lorentz transformation given above. All tensors transform by the same rule.<br /> The squared length of the differential of the position four-vector <img class="tex" alt="dx^mu !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/f/d/7/fd7c72e78cf2a0fbe27e9ef243517c17.png" /> constructed using<br /> <img class="tex" alt="mathbf{dx}^2 = eta_{munu}dx^mu dx^nu = -(c cdot dt)^2+(dx)^2+(dy)^2+(dz)^2," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/6/f/0/6f0c66aad1233b3aa3eb4e841fb48f20.png" /><br /> is an invariant. Being invariant means that it takes the same value in all inertial frames, because it is a scalar (0 rank tensor), and so no Λ appears in its trivial transformation. Notice that when the <span href="/wiki/Line_element" title="Line element">line element</span> <img class="tex" alt="mathbf{dx}^2" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/4/e/54e29c41cc5f8a4b4df7ee5736ff144e.png" /> is negative that <img class="tex" alt="dtau=sqrt{-mathbf{dx}^2} / c" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/1/2/0122e9b396f8d82c11a9488a242dde91.png" /> is the differential of <span href="/wiki/Proper_time" title="Proper time">proper time</span>, while when <img class="tex" alt="mathbf{dx}^2" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/4/e/54e29c41cc5f8a4b4df7ee5736ff144e.png" /> is positive, <img class="tex" alt="sqrt{mathbf{dx}^2}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/e/e/5ee4ea10ddb1f8d18a3a3a07f489593a.png" /> is differential of the <span href="/wiki/Proper_distance" title="Proper distance">proper distance</span>.<br /> The primary value of expressing the equations of physics in a tensor form is that they are then manifestly invariant under the Poincaré group, so that we do not have to do a special and tedious calculation to check that fact. Also in constructing such equations we often find that equations previously thought to be unrelated are, in fact, closely connected being part of the same tensor equation.<br /> <span name="Velocity_and_acceleration_in_4D" id="Velocity_and_acceleration_in_4D"></span><br /> <b> Metric and transformations of coordinates</b><br /> Recognising other physical quantities as tensors also simplifies their transformation laws. First note that the <span href="/wiki/Four-velocity" title="Four-velocity">velocity four-vector</span> <i>U</i> also has an invariant form:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="{mathbf U}^2 = eta_{numu} U^nu U^mu = -c^2 ." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/0/1/8010b2ba92ee3615ddf7d453d402108c.png" /><br /> So all velocity four-vectors have a magnitude of <i>c</i>. This is an expression of the fact that there is no such thing as being at coordinate rest in relativity: at the least, you are always moving forward through time. The <span href="/wiki/Four-acceleration" title="Four-acceleration">acceleration 4-vector</span> is given by <img class="tex" alt="A^mu = d{mathbf U^mu}/dtau" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/9/9/89919d750add5a3d3ad0d827b7fe138f.png" />. Given this, differentiating the above equation by <i>τ</i> produces<br /> <img class="tex" alt="2eta_{munu}A^mu U^nu = 0. !" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/7/6/3/7633590f8789139bc8d39b5bc75a56c9.png" /><br /> So in relativity, the acceleration four-vector and the velocity 4-vector are orthogonal.<br /> <span name="Momentum_in_4D" id="Momentum_in_4D"></span><br /> <b> Velocity and acceleration in 4D</b><br /> The momentum and energy combine into a covariant 4-vector:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="p_nu = m cdot eta_{numu} U^mu = begin{pmatrix}<br /> -E p_x p_y p_zend{pmatrix}." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/f/8/8/f88887b3fe8954b67947533903105c6e.png" /><br /> where <i>m</i> is the <span href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</span>.<br /> The invariant magnitude of the <span href="/wiki/Four-momentum" title="Four-momentum">momentum 4-vector</span> is:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="mathbf{p}^2 = eta^{munu}p_mu p_nu = -(E/c)^2 + p^2 ." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/d/f/2/df2ea63a4adb76b34a45cde4e4b7d830.png" /><br /> We can work out what this invariant is by first arguing that, since it is a scalar, it doesn't matter which reference frame we calculate it, and then by transforming to a frame where the total momentum is zero.<br /> <img class="tex" alt="mathbf{p}^2 = - (E_{rest}/c)^2 = - (m cdot c)^2 ." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/3/1/b/31bdac8d75746c13b1b81be222561913.png" /><br /> We see that the rest energy is an independent invariant. A rest energy can be calculated even for particles and systems in motion, by translating to a frame in which momentum is zero.<br /> The rest energy is related to the mass according to the celebrated equation discussed above:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="E_{rest} = m c^2," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/c/c/0cc50acadfdd9d19debfe42dcc154b21.png" /><br /> Note that the mass of systems measured in their center of momentum frame (where total momentum is zero) is given by the total energy of the system in this frame. It may not be equal to the sum of individual system masses measured in other frames.<br /> <span name="Force_in_4D" id="Force_in_4D"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/relativity/srelprob/einlogo3.JPG" alt="Special relativity" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Momentum in 4D</b><br /> To use <span href="/wiki/Newton%27s_third_law_of_motion" title="Newton's third law of motion">Newton's third law of motion</span>, both forces must be defined as the rate of change of momentum with respect to the same time coordinate. That is, it requires the 3D force defined above. Unfortunately, there is no tensor in 4D which contains the components of the 3D force vector among its components.<br /> If a particle is not traveling at <i>c</i>, one can transform the 3D force from the particle's co-moving reference frame into the observer's reference frame. This yields a 4-vector called the <span href="/wiki/Four-force" title="Four-force">four-force</span>. It is the rate of change of the above energy momentum <span href="/wiki/Four-vector" title="Four-vector">four-vector</span> with respect to proper time. The covariant version of the four-force is:<br /> <img class="tex" alt="F_nu = frac{d p_{nu}}{d tau} = begin{pmatrix} -{d E}/{d tau} {d p_x}/{d tau} {d p_y}/{d tau} {d p_z}/{d tau} end{pmatrix}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/a/d/bad3b0056a37841aae558c3fbcd4fbf8.png" /><br /> where <img class="tex" alt="tau ," src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/d/9/5/d95fd1519e587418ebe3da8fb081701f.png" /> is the proper time.<br /> In the rest frame of the object, the time component of the four force is zero unless the "<span href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</span>" of the object is changing in which case it is the negative of that rate of change times <i>c</i>. In general, though, the components of the four force are not equal to the components of the three-force, because the three force is defined by the rate of change of momentum with respect to coordinate time, i.e. <img class="tex" alt="frac{d p}{d t}" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/d/4/1/d41044a139defbff470177ecc63e1da5.png" /> while the four force is defined by the rate of change of momentum with respect to proper time, i.e. <img class="tex" alt=" frac{d p} {d tau} " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/3/0/0/300d8a891d489cdfa1dca05a6fdacd71.png" />.<br /> In a continuous medium, the 3D <i>density of force</i> combines with the <i>density of power</i> to form a covariant 4-vector. The spatial part is the result of dividing the force on a small cell (in 3-space) by the volume of that cell. The time component is the negative of the power transferred to that cell divided by the volume of the cell. This will be used below in the section on electromagnetism.<br /> <span name="Relativity_and_unifying_electromagnetism" id="Relativity_and_unifying_electromagnetism"></span><br /> <b> Force in 4D</b><br /> Theoretical investigation in classical electromagnetism led to the discovery of wave propagation. Equations generalizing the electromagnetic effects found that finite propagation-speed of the E and B fields required certain behaviors on charged particles. The general study of moving charges forms the <span href="/wiki/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential" title="Liénard–Wiechert potential">Liénard–Wiechert potential</span>, which is a step towards special relativity.<br /> The Lorentz transformation of the <span href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</span> of a moving charge into a non-moving observer's reference frame results in the appearance of a mathematical term commonly called the <span href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</span>. Conversely, the <i>magnetic</i> field generated by a moving charge disappears and becomes a purely <i>electrostatic</i> field in a comoving frame of reference. <span href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations#Formulation_of_Maxwell.27s_equations_in_special_relativity" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</span> are thus simply an empirical fit to special relativistic effects in a classical model of the Universe. As electric and magnetic fields are reference frame dependent and thus intertwined, one speaks of <i>electromagnetic</i> fields. Special relativity provides the transformation rules for how an electromagnetic field in one inertial frame appears in another inertial frame.<br /> <span name="Electromagnetism_in_4D" id="Electromagnetism_in_4D"></span><br /> <b> Relativity and unifying electromagnetism</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Formulation_of_Maxwell%27s_equations_in_special_relativity" title="Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special relativity">Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special relativity</span></i> <b> Electromagnetism in 4D</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Status_of_special_relativity" title="Status of special relativity">Status of special relativity</span></i> <b> Status</b><br /> <span name="Textbooks" id="Textbooks"></span><br /> <b> Textbooks</b><br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/" class="external text" title="http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/" rel="nofollow">On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies</span>, A. Einstein, Annalen der Physik, 17:891, June 30, 1905 (in English translation)<br /> Wolf, Peter and Gerard, Petit. "Satellite test of Special Relativity using the Global Positioning System", <i>Physics Review A</i> 56 (6), 4405-4409 (1997).<br /> Will, Clifford M. "Clock synchronization and isotropy of the one-way speed of light", <i>Physics Review D</i> 45, 403-411 (1992).<br /> <span href="http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0409105" class="external text" title="http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0409105" rel="nofollow">Rizzi G. et al, "Synchronization Gauges and the Principles of Special Relativity"</span>, Found. Phys. 34 (2005) 1835-1887<br /> Alvager et al., "Test of the Second Postulate of Special Relativity in the GeV region", <i>Physics Letters</i> 12, 260 (1964).<br /> Olivier Darrigol (2004) "The Mystery of the Poincaré-Einstein Connection", <i>Isis</i> <b>95</b> (4), 614 - 626. <b> Journal articles</b><br /> <b>People</b>: <span href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</span> | <span href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</span> | <span href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</span> | <span href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</span> | <span href="/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Bernhard Riemann</span> | <span href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</span> | <span href="/wiki/Alexander_MacFarlane_%28mathematician%29" title="Alexander MacFarlane (mathematician)">Alexander MacFarlane</span> | <span href="/wiki/Harry_Bateman" title="Harry Bateman">Harry Bateman</span> | <span href="/wiki/Robert_S._Shankland" title="Robert S. Shankland">Robert S. Shankland</span> | <span href="/wiki/Walter_Ritz" title="Walter Ritz">Walter Ritz</span><br /> <b>Relativity</b>: <span href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</span> | <span href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">principle of relativity</span> | <span href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</span> | <span href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</span> | <span href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">inertial frame of reference</span> | <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformations" title="Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</span> | <span href="/wiki/Bondi_k-calculus" title="Bondi k-calculus">Bondi k-calculus</span> | <span href="/wiki/Einstein_synchronisation" title="Einstein synchronisation">Einstein synchronisation</span> | <span href="/wiki/Rietdijk-Putnam_Argument" title="Rietdijk-Putnam Argument">Rietdijk-Putnam Argument</span><br /> <b>Physics</b>: <span href="/wiki/Newtonian_Mechanics" title="Newtonian Mechanics">Newtonian Mechanics</span> | <span href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</span> | <span href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</span> | <span href="/wiki/Simultaneity" title="Simultaneity">simultaneity</span> | <span href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</span> | <span href="/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler effect</span> | <span href="/wiki/Relativistic_Euler_equations" title="Relativistic Euler equations">relativistic Euler equations</span> | <span href="/wiki/Aether_drag_hypothesis" title="Aether drag hypothesis">Aether drag hypothesis</span> | <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_ether_theory" title="Lorentz ether theory">Lorentz ether theory</span> | <span href="/wiki/Moving_magnet_and_conductor_problem" title="Moving magnet and conductor problem">Moving magnet and conductor problem</span><br /> <b>Maths</b>: <span href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</span> | <span href="/wiki/Four-vector" title="Four-vector">four-vector</span> | <span href="/wiki/World_line" title="World line">world line</span> | <span href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">light cone</span> | <span href="/wiki/Lorentz_group" title="Lorentz group">Lorentz group</span> | <span href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group" title="Poincaré group">Poincaré group</span> | <span href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</span> | <span href="/wiki/Tensors" title="Tensors">tensors</span> | <span href="/wiki/Split-complex_number" title="Split-complex number">split-complex number</span><br /> <b>Philosophy</b>: <span href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">actualism</span> | <span href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">conventionalism</span> | <span href="/wiki/Formalism" title="Formalism">formalism</span><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="Original_Works" id="Original_Works"></span><br /> <b> Original Works</b><br /> <span name="Special_relativity_explained_.28using_simple_or_more_advanced_math.29" id="Special_relativity_explained_.28using_simple_or_more_advanced_math.29"></span><br /> <span href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special_Relativity" class="external text" title="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special_Relativity" rel="nofollow">Wikibooks: Special Relativity</span><br /> <span href="http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/einsteinlight" class="external text" title="http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/einsteinlight" rel="nofollow">Einstein Light</span> An <span href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=0005CFF9-524F-1340-924F83414B7F0000" class="external text" title="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=0005CFF9-524F-1340-924F83414B7F0000" rel="nofollow">award</span>-winning, non-technical introduction (film clips and demonstrations) supported by dozens of pages of further explanations and animations, at levels with or without mathematics.<br /> <span href="http://www.einstein-online.info/en/elementary/index.html" class="external text" title="http://www.einstein-online.info/en/elementary/index.html" rel="nofollow">Einstein Online</span> Introduction to relativity theory, from the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics. misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-87798369610050387802007-11-15T09:05:00.000-08:002007-11-15T09:06:53.588-08:00<img src="http://www.bt.no/multimedia/archive/00115/Rune_Indr_y_TV2_TV__115561a.jpg" alt="Kåre Valebrokk" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>Kåre Valebrokk</b> (born <span href="/wiki/17th_December" title="17th December">17th December</span> <span href="/wiki/1940" title="1940">1940</span>) is a Norwegian journalist. He has been chief editor and administrative director of <span href="/wiki/TV_2" title="TV 2">TV 2</span> since <span href="/wiki/11th_October" title="11th October">11th October</span>, <span href="/wiki/1999" title="1999">1999</span>, and will retire in the spring of 2007. Columnist at <span href="/wiki/Aftenposten" title="Aftenposten">Aftenposten</span>.<br /> He was previously the influential chief editor of the newspaper <span href="/wiki/Dagens_N%C3%A6ringsliv" title="Dagens Næringsliv">Dagens Næringsliv</span> (<span href="/wiki/1985" title="1985">1985</span>-<span href="/wiki/1999" title="1999">1999</span>).<br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-72573022017986518102007-11-14T08:25:00.001-08:002007-11-14T08:25:50.745-08:00<img src="http://www.sec.noaa.gov/SWN/mlso_halpha_sm.gif" alt="Mauna Loa Solar Observatory" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>The Mauna Loa Solar Observatory (MLSO)</b> is a collection of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_imaging&action=edit" class="new" title="Solar imaging">solar imaging</span> instruments located on the island of <span href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</span>, <span href="/wiki/USA" title="USA">USA</span> at an elevation of 11,000 feet.<br /> <span name="General_Information" id="General_Information"></span><br /> <b> General Information</b><br /> The MLSO is operated by the <span href="/wiki/High_Altitude_Observatory" title="High Altitude Observatory">High Altitude Observatory</span>, which is a division of the <span href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</span>. The observatory is tasked with monitoring the <span href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">solar</span> <span href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">atmosphere</span> and recording data on <span href="/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmic</span> and <span href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energetic</span> emissions from the <span href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">chromosphere</span> and <span href="/wiki/Corona" title="Corona">corona</span>. Studies of <span href="/wiki/Coronal_Mass_Ejection" title="Coronal Mass Ejection">Coronal Mass Ejections</span> (CMEs) are conducted at MLSO.<br /> <span name="Instruments" id="Instruments"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-50215072728995120612007-11-13T08:02:00.000-08:002007-11-13T08:03:56.762-08:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>Norwegian national football team</b>, controlled by the <span href="/wiki/Norwegian_Football_Association" title="Norwegian Football Association">Norwegian Football Association</span>, is the national <span href="/wiki/Football_%28soccer%29" title="Football (soccer)">football</span> team of <span href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</span>. It has participated three times in the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup" title="Football World Cup">World Cup</span>; in <span href="/wiki/1938_FIFA_World_Cup" title="1938 FIFA World Cup">1938</span>, <span href="/wiki/1994_FIFA_World_Cup" title="1994 FIFA World Cup">1994</span> and <span href="/wiki/1998_FIFA_World_Cup" title="1998 FIFA World Cup">1998</span>. It plays its home games in <span href="/wiki/Ullevaal_Stadium" title="Ullevaal Stadium">Ullevaal Stadium</span>, which seats 25,572 spectators. The Norwegian national team continues to be the only team that has played <span href="/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team" title="Brazil national football team">Brazil</span> and never lost to them.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <b> History</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_%28soccer%29" title="Football (soccer)">Football</span> came to Norway from <span href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</span> in the 1880s, and quickly became popular both in terms of active players and as a spectator sport. Norway's first football club, <i>Christiania Footballclub</i> was founded in 1885. The oldest club still in existence is <span href="/wiki/Odd_Grenland" title="Odd Grenland">Odd Grenland</span>, formed in 1894. In the following years, several more clubs were formed, and in 1902, <span href="/wiki/Norwegian_Football_Association" title="Norwegian Football Association">Norges Fotballforbund</span> (NFF), the Norwegian Football Association, was formed. Later that year, the inaugural <span href="/wiki/Norwegian_Football_Cup" title="Norwegian Football Cup">Norwegian Football Cup</span> was held. However, it wasn't until 1908, at the invitation of the Swedish FA, that a national team was put together.<br /> <span name="1910s"></span><br /> <b> Early history</b><br /> Norway's first-ever international game was played on <span href="/wiki/July_12" title="July 12">July 12</span>, <span href="/wiki/1908" title="1908">1908</span> in <span href="/wiki/Gothenburg" title="Gothenburg">Gothenburg</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</span>. This was also <span href="/wiki/Sweden_national_football_team" title="Sweden national football team">Sweden</span>'s first-ever international match. Oslo club <span href="/w/index.php?title=Mercantile_F.K.&action=edit" class="new" title="Mercantile F.K.">Mercantile</span>, the reigning cup champions, formed the backbone of the Norwegian side with nine of the eleven players in Norway's lineup.<br /> The match started off great for the Norwegians. Within the first minute, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Minotti_B%C3%B8hn&action=edit" class="new" title="Minotti Bøhn">Minotti Bøhn</span> scored the first goal of the game. It went downhill from there. Bøhn did add a second goal, and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Endrerud&action=edit" class="new" title="Hans Endrerud">Hans Endrerud</span> also put his name on the scoresheet. Nevertheless, when the referee blew the final whistle, Sweden had won by a score of 11-3.<br /> It would take two years until the next time a Norwegian national side was put together. Once again, the Swedes were the opposition, and this time it was the Norwegians who held the home-field advantage. It was, however, the Swedes who won the match. This time, the final score was 4-0. Norway also went home with two straight defeats when they participated in the <span href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</span> <span href="/wiki/Football_at_the_1912_Summer_Olympics" title="Football at the 1912 Summer Olympics">Olympics</span> of <span href="/wiki/1912_Summer_Olympics" title="1912 Summer Olympics">1912</span>. The opponents were <span href="/wiki/Denmark_national_football_team" title="Denmark national football team">Denmark</span> and <span href="/wiki/Austria_national_football_team" title="Austria national football team">Austria</span>.<br /> Overall, the period between 1908 and 1917 is a sorry chapter in the Norwegian national team's history. In those nine years, Norway failed to win a single game. Rock bottom was reached on <span href="/wiki/October_7" title="October 7">October 7</span>, <span href="/wiki/1917" title="1917">1917</span> when Norway were routed 12-0 against Denmark. To this date, this is Norway's heaviest ever defeat.<br /> <span name="1920s"></span><br /> <b> 1910s</b><br /> A new national team coach was hired in 1918. His name was <span href="/w/index.php?title=Birger_M%C3%B6ller&action=edit" class="new" title="Birger Möller">Birger Möller</span>, and he was Swedish. Möller is said to have been an excellent motivator, and spent a lot of time practicing team play and technical skills – and good results followed. On <span href="/wiki/June_16" title="June 16">June 16</span>, <span href="/wiki/1918" title="1918">1918</span>, after 27 straight games without a win, Norway avenged the embarrassing defeat in <span href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</span> the year before by winning 3-1 against Denmark in <span href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</span>. A few months later, Norway defeated Sweden by a score of 5-1 in Gothenburg, which was Norway's first-ever away victory.<br /> Norway's biggest star in the 1920s was unquestionably <span href="/wiki/Einar_Gundersen" title="Einar Gundersen">Einar "Jeja" Gundersen</span>, who scored a total of 26 international goals between 1917 and 1928. Other stars at the time were team captain <span href="/wiki/Gunnar_Andersen" title="Gunnar Andersen">Gunnar Andersen</span> (<span href="/wiki/F.C._Lyn_Oslo" title="F.C. Lyn Oslo">Lyn</span>), <span href="/wiki/Per_Skou" title="Per Skou">Per Skou</span> (Lyn and <span href="/wiki/Odd_Grenland" title="Odd Grenland">Odd</span>) and <span href="/wiki/Asbj%C3%B8rn_Halvorsen" title="Asbjørn Halvorsen">Asbjørn Halvorsen</span> (<span href="/wiki/Sarpsborg_F.K." title="Sarpsborg F.K.">Sarpsborg</span>). These players formed the core of the side that participated in the <span href="/wiki/Football_at_the_1912_Summer_Olympics" title="Football at the 1912 Summer Olympics">1920 Olympics</span> in <span href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</span>, where Norway got their greatest win to that date.<br /> In the opening match of the <span href="/wiki/1912_Summer_Olympics" title="1912 Summer Olympics">Olympic tournament</span>, Norway faced pre-tournament favorites <span href="/wiki/England_national_football_team" title="England national football team">England</span>. It may have been an amateur side, but England was nevertheless the home of football, and the team was expected to ease past Norway. It is said that Gunnar Andersen was the first to show that the English players were not supermen, by dribbling past several players. His confidence passed on to the other Norwegian players, and when the smoke cleared, Norway had won 3-1 courtesy of two goals by "Jeja" Gundersen and one goal by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Einar_Wilhelms&action=edit" class="new" title="Einar Wilhelms">Einar Wilhelms</span>.<br /> In the next round, Norway faced <span href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia_national_football_team" title="Czechoslovakia national football team">Czechoslovakia</span>, but there was to be no repeat of the sensational win against England. The Czechoslovakians won the game 4-0.<br /> Norway claimed a few more scalps in the following years, including a 2-0 win against <span href="/wiki/France_national_football_team" title="France national football team">France</span> in <span href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</span> in 1923, as well as a few more wins against arch-rivals Sweden. However, in the latter half of the 1920s, the golden era was over. Between 1924 and 1928, Norway won only four matches – all of them against <span href="/wiki/Finland_national_football_team" title="Finland national football team">Finland</span>.<br /> The bad spell began to end near the turn of the decade, largely thanks to new star players like goalkeeper <span href="/wiki/Henry_Johansen" title="Henry Johansen">Henry "Tippen" Johansen</span> and striker <span href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_Juve" title="Jørgen Juve">Jørgen Juve</span>, who is Norway's all-time leading scorer on international level with 33 goals. On <span href="/wiki/June_23" title="June 23">June 23</span>, <span href="/wiki/1929" title="1929">1929</span>, Juve scored twice as Norway defeated Denmark by a score of 5-2 in Copenhagen. It was Norway's first-ever away win against Denmark.<br /> <span name="1930s"></span><br /> <b> 1920s</b><br /> In 1933, <span href="/wiki/Viking_F.K." title="Viking F.K.">Viking</span>'s brilliant inside-forward <span href="/wiki/Reidar_Kvammen" title="Reidar Kvammen">Reidar Kvammen</span> made his international debut. Two years later, Lyn's wing wizard <span href="/wiki/Arne_Brustad" title="Arne Brustad">Arne Brustad</span> made his debut. Furthermore, in 1934, former national team hero <span href="/wiki/Asbj%C3%B8rn_Halvorsen" title="Asbjørn Halvorsen">Asbjørn Halvorsen</span> returned home after 12 years in <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</span>. These events mark the start of what is known as Norwegian football's "Bronze Age".<br /> When Halvorsen returned from <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</span>, he was hired as general secretary of the NFF, and thus also became chairman of the national team's selection committee. At the time, team selection was handled by the selection committee, while the coach's sole responsibility was training the players the selection committee had picked. However, Halvorsen also named himself team coach, and thus became Norway's first "modern" national team manager.<br /> Norway had gotten several good results leading up to the <span href="/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics" title="1936 Summer Olympics">Berlin Olympics</span>, including wins against <span href="/wiki/Austria_national_football_team" title="Austria national football team">Austria</span> and <span href="/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team" title="Hungary national football team">Hungary</span>. Even so, few people believed Norway would stand a chance in the Olympic tournament, especially since they were scheduled to face the host nation in the second round (if they could get past <span href="/wiki/Turkey_national_football_team" title="Turkey national football team">Turkey</span> in the opener). The match against Turkey went easier than expected, as Norway won 4-0. The next match was against the <span href="/wiki/Germany_national_football_team" title="Germany national football team">Germans</span>, who had demolished <span href="/wiki/Luxembourg_national_football_team" title="Luxembourg national football team">Luxembourg</span> 9-0 in their opener. It is said that the <span href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegians</span> were so sure of defeat that they had booked return tickets to Norway two days after the Germany game. If this is true, the travel arrangements would have had to be altered.<br /> In front of a capacity crowd that included <span href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</span> and <span href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Goebbels</span>, Norway got a fully-deserved 2-0 win against the hosts. Both goals were scored by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Magnar_Isaksen&action=edit" class="new" title="Magnar Isaksen">Magnar Isaksen</span>, and the win meant that Germany were knocked out and Norway advanced to the semi-finals, where they faced <span href="/wiki/Italy_national_football_team" title="Italy national football team">Italy</span>. The match against Italy was a closely-contested one, but the Italians eventually won the game 2-1 after extra time. Arne Brustad scored the Norwegian goal. Next up was the third-place match against <span href="/wiki/Poland_national_football_team" title="Poland national football team">Poland</span>, where Brustad scored a hat-trick and guided Norway to a 3-2 victory. Norway had won the bronze medals, and Brustad was hailed as one of the best players of the tournament.<br /> Two years later, Norway took part in their first-ever <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup" title="Football World Cup">World Cup</span>. Norway had qualified after defeating the <span href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland_national_football_team" title="Republic of Ireland national football team">Republic of Ireland</span> by an aggregate score of 6-5. Reidar Kvammen was the big hero, having scored twice in both matches. The <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1938" title="Football World Cup 1938">1938 World Cup</span> was a straight knockout tournament, and in the opening round, Norway were drawn against defending world champions Italy.<br /> The match, which was played in <span href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</span>, was very tight and exciting. Italy took an early lead, but Norway equalised seven minuted before the final whistle, when Brustad ran past the entire Italian defence and slotted the ball past the keeper. A few minutes later, everyone believed that Brustad had added his second, but this goal was disallowed because of a highly disputed offside call. So, just like in the Olympic tournament two years earlier, the game went to extra time – and once again, the Italians came out on top thanks to a goal by <span href="/wiki/Silvio_Piola" title="Silvio Piola">Silvio Piola</span>. And just like in the <span href="/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics" title="1936 Summer Olympics">1936 Olympics</span>, Italy went on to win the entire tournament. There was a small consolation for Brustad later that year, when he was picked in the "Rest of Europe XI" that played against England at Wembley.<br /> On <span href="/wiki/October_22" title="October 22">October 22</span>, <span href="/wiki/1939" title="1939">1939</span>, Norway lost 4-1 against Denmark in Copenhagen. This would turn out to become Norway's last international match for nearly six years.<br /> <span name="1940s"></span><br /> <b> 1930s</b><br /> When Norway was invaded by <span href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</span> in 1940, practically all organized football ceased operations. Asbjørn Halvorsen was among the figureheads of the sports boycott, and was arrested and sent to a <span href="/wiki/Concentration_camp" title="Concentration camp">concentration camp</span>. Many other sports figures, including Reidar Kvammen, were also put in concentration camps. Although many players tried to keep fit, and a few illegal matches were organized, the six-year hiatus set Norwegian football back by several years – which became painstakingly evident in the first post-war game against Sweden in Stockholm on <span href="/wiki/October_21" title="October 21">October 21</span>, <span href="/wiki/1945" title="1945">1945</span>.<br /> Many of the old heroes were in the side that faced Sweden that day. Brustad, <span href="/wiki/%C3%98ivind_Holmsen" title="Øivind Holmsen">Øivind Holmsen</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Alf_Martinsen&action=edit" class="new" title="Alf Martinsen">Alf "Kaka" Martinsen</span> had played for the "Bronze Team", while <span href="/wiki/Kristian_Henriksen" title="Kristian Henriksen">Kristian Henriksen</span>, <span href="/wiki/Knut_Brynildsen" title="Knut Brynildsen">Knut Brynildsen</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Rolf_Johannessen&action=edit" class="new" title="Rolf Johannessen">Rolf Johannessen</span> had played in the 1938 World Cup. However, six years is a long time in football, and the Swedes, who had not been involved in <span href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">the war</span>, had a great side in the making, and won the game by a score of 10-0. When Sweden scored their ninth goal, team joker Kristian Henriksen reportedly told his teammates, <i>"OK lads, lets go for a draw"</i>. The Bronze Age was over.<br /> Eventually, new players were added to the team towards the end of the 1940s. Two of the biggest names were striker <span href="/wiki/Gunnar_Thoresen" title="Gunnar Thoresen">Gunnar Thoresen</span> and defender <span href="/wiki/Thorbj%C3%B8rn_Svenssen" title="Thorbjørn Svenssen">Thorbjørn Svenssen</span>, who was nicknamed "Klippen" (<i>"The Rock"</i>). Also, Bronze Team hero Reidar Kvammen still had some skills remaining in his feet and became the first Norwegian to reach 50 caps in 1948. Although the team was nowhere near the levels of the pre-war side, they did notch up a few big wins. In 1946, <span href="/wiki/Finland_national_football_team" title="Finland national football team">Finland</span> were routed by a score of 12-0, and two years later, Norway won 11-0 against the <span href="/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team" title="United States men's national soccer team">United States</span> in a match where <span href="/wiki/Odd_Wang_S%C3%B8rensen" title="Odd Wang Sørensen">Odd Wang Sørensen</span> scored five goals – which to this day is the team record for most goals scored by one player in a single game.<br /> In 1949, an 18-year-old inside-forward from <span href="/w/index.php?title=F.K._%C3%98rn-Horten&action=edit" class="new" title="F.K. Ørn-Horten">Ørn Horten</span> named <span href="/wiki/Per_Bredesen" title="Per Bredesen">Per Bredesen</span> made his international debut. He scored in his debut and received rave reviews. Norway had uncovered a new star, and as Norway entered the 1950s, people believed Norway had a new great side in the making. Unfortunately, young Bredesen's national team career was short-lived. In 1952, Bredesen was signed a professional contract with Italian giants <span href="/wiki/SS_Lazio" title="SS Lazio">Lazio</span> – and according to the NFF's self-imposed amateur rules, he was banished from the national team. In an age where most countries in <span href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</span> had introduced professional football, the old amateur ideals of the 19th century were still the rule in Norway.<br /> <span name="1950s"></span><br /> <b> 1940s</b><br /> Victories were few and far between for the Norwegian national side in the 1950s, and the few games Norway actually did manage to win were usually against fellow minnows Finland and <span href="/wiki/Iceland_national_football_team" title="Iceland national football team">Iceland</span>. Norway did manage a sensational 2-1 win against <span href="/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team" title="Hungary national football team">Hungary</span> in a <span href="/wiki/1957" title="1957">1957</span> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1958" title="Football World Cup 1958">World Cup</span> qualifier, but other than that, there were few highlights. In the return game against the Hungarians, Norway were beaten 5-0.<br /> Thorbjørn Svenssen remained a mainstay in Norway's central defence throughout the decade, and when he finally bowed down in 1962, he had played an amazing 104 full internationals. At the time, he was only the second footballer in history to reach a <span href="/wiki/List_of_football_%28soccer%29_players_with_100_or_more_caps" title="List of football (soccer) players with 100 or more caps">century of caps</span> (the first was England captain <span href="/wiki/Billy_Wright_%28footballer%29" title="Billy Wright (footballer)">Billy Wright</span>. Another national team star at the time was striker <span href="/wiki/Harald_Hennum" title="Harald Hennum">Harald Hennum</span>. His 25 international goals is a post-war record.<br /> Nobody knows what Norway might have achieved if Per Bredesen had been available, but the amateur rules were still in force, even though they were somewhat relaxed in 1960 to allow another Italian exile, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ragnar_Larsen&action=edit" class="new" title="Ragnar Larsen">Ragnar Larsen</span>, who had recently returned home, to once again play for his country.<br /> In 1959, Norway finished the year with four straight defeats and 22 conceded goals. Even Iceland proved too strong this year, winning 1-0 in <span href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk" title="Reykjavík">Reykjavík</span>.<br /> <span name="1960s"></span><br /> <img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f5/Norway_national_football_team_logo.png/120px-Norway_national_football_team_logo.png" alt="Norwegian national football team" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> 1950s</b><br /> Following the dismal end to the last year, Austrian <span href="/w/index.php?title=Willi_Kment&action=edit" class="new" title="Willi Kment">Willi Kment</span> was hired as new national team coach in 1960. Another newcomer was a 17-year-old winger from <span href="/wiki/S.K._Brann" title="S.K. Brann">Brann</span> who was named <span href="/wiki/Roald_Jensen" title="Roald Jensen">Roald Jensen</span>, but became known only by his nickname "<i>Kniksen</i>". The slightly-built teenager was a wizard with the ball, and suddenly, Norway had a new star – and new-found optimism. Another talented youngster, attacking midfielder <span href="/wiki/Olav_Nilsen" title="Olav Nilsen">Olav Nilsen</span> made his debut a couple of years later. Nilsen would be a mainstay in the side throughout the decade. "Kniksen" on the other hand, went abroad just like Per Bredesen before him, and thus became disqualified from further national team play.<br /> There was little improvement to be found in the results column, but once in a while, Norway pulled off a shock result. They won against Sweden and <span href="/wiki/Netherlands_national_football_team" title="Netherlands national football team">Holland</span> in 1962, and defeated <span href="/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team" title="Scotland national football team">Scotland</span> by a score of 4-3 in 1963. However, this fine win was followed by a 9-0 defeat against <span href="/wiki/Poland_national_football_team" title="Poland national football team">Poland</span>, just to confirm that despite the occasional victory, Norway were still among the bottom-feeders of European football.<br /> In the <span href="/wiki/1966_World_Cup" title="1966 World Cup">1966 World Cup</span> qualifiers, Norway emerged as serious contenders for qualification for the first time in three decades. Though the home-based amateur only rule was retained, Norway boasted a promising side including Finn Seemann, Harald Berg, Olav Nilsen and Egil Olsen. All told, they finished runners up behind <span href="/wiki/France_national_football_team" title="France national football team">France</span> with 7 points (3 wins, 1 draw and 2 defeats) with two narrow defeats to France proving costly.<br /> One of Norway's most shocking results in the 1960s was the victory against <span href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_national_football_team" title="Yugoslavia national football team">Yugoslavia</span> in a <span href="/wiki/1965" title="1965">1965</span> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1966" title="Football World Cup 1966">World Cup</span> qualifier. The Yugoslavs had finished second in the <span href="/wiki/1960_European_Football_Championship" title="1960 European Football Championship">European Championship</span> a few years earlier, and was rated as one of the continent's top sides – but they had to travel home from Ullevaal with a 3-0 defeat in their bags thanks to goals from <span href="/w/index.php?title=Finn_Seemann&action=edit" class="new" title="Finn Seemann">Finn Seemann</span>, <span href="/wiki/Odd_Iversen" title="Odd Iversen">Odd Iversen</span> and the new star player from northern Norway, <span href="/wiki/Harald_Berg" title="Harald Berg">Harald "Dutte" Berg</span>. Norway also played well against <span href="/wiki/France_national_football_team" title="France national football team">France</span> in this qualifying campaign, but both matches ended with narrow defeats. This was nevertheless the closest Norway had come to reaching a major tournament since the glory days of the 1930s.<br /> Norway once again faced France in the qualifying tournament for the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1970" title="Football World Cup 1970">1970 World Cup</span>. The home match ended with a rather predictable 3-1 defeat, but in the return leg in <span href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</span>, Norway pulled off another shock result and won the game 1-0. <span href="/wiki/Odd_Iversen" title="Odd Iversen">Odd Iversen</span> scored the only goal of the game.<br /> Among the other notable facts, it might be mentioned that <span href="/wiki/Fredrikstad_F.K." title="Fredrikstad F.K.">Fredrikstad</span> defender <span href="/wiki/Roar_Johansen" title="Roar Johansen">Roar Johansen</span> played 54 consecutive internationals between 1960 and 1967. Not even Thorbjørn Svenssen managed a streak like that. Another piece of trivia was that goalkeeper <span href="/wiki/Kjell_Kaspersen" title="Kjell Kaspersen">Kjell Kaspersen</span> scored on a penalty in the 7-0 friendly win against <span href="/wiki/Thailand_national_football_team" title="Thailand national football team">Thailand</span> in 1965. This makes Kaspersen the only goalkeeper to have scored for the Norwegian national side.<br /> <span name="1970s"></span><br /> <b> 1960s</b><br /> In 1969, the self-imposed amateur rule was finally abolished, and foreign-based professionals like "Kniksen" and Finn Seemann could once again play with the flag on their chest. It also meant that domestic stars like Odd Iversen and Harald Berg could move abroad without jeopardizing their national team eligibility.<br /> However, the rule change did not improve the results. If anything, the national team's results in the early 1970s got even worse. During the <span href="/wiki/1972_European_Football_Championship" title="1972 European Football Championship">Euro 72</span> qualifying campaign, Norway picked up only one point in six games, and in a <span href="/wiki/1972" title="1972">1972</span> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1974" title="Football World Cup 1974">World Cup</span> qualifier against Holland, Norway lost 9-0. The next year, they suffered a perhaps even more humiliating result by losing against <span href="/wiki/Luxembourg_national_football_team" title="Luxembourg national football team">Luxembourg</span>.<br /> There were, however, a few bright spots. A new star emerged in the form of <span href="/wiki/Tom_Lund" title="Tom Lund">Tom Lund</span>, who made his international debut in 1971. A playmaker in the <span href="/wiki/Johan_Cruyff" title="Johan Cruyff">Johan Cruyff</span> mold, "Tommy" was without question a great player. Many consider him to be the Norway's finest player ever, but even he couldn't carry the team on his own, and Norway continued to finish last in their <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup" title="Football World Cup">World Cup</span> and <span href="/wiki/European_Football_Championship" title="European Football Championship">European Championship</span> qualifying groups.<br /> In the late 1970s, however, there were signs of improvement. Guided by Tom Lund and new head coach <span href="/w/index.php?title=Tor_R%C3%B8ste_Fossen&action=edit" class="new" title="Tor Røste Fossen">Tor Røste Fossen</span>, Norway defeated both Sweden and <span href="/wiki/Switzerland_national_football_team" title="Switzerland national football team">Switzerland</span> in the qualifying campaign for the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1978" title="Football World Cup 1978">1978 World Cup</span>. The win against Sweden was somewhat marred by <span href="/wiki/Svein_Gr%C3%B8ndalen" title="Svein Grøndalen">Svein Grøndalen</span>'s vicious tackle that left Swedish star player <span href="/wiki/Ralf_Edstr%C3%B6m" title="Ralf Edström">Ralf Edström</span>, but when Norway played their last World Cup qualifier away against Switzerland, they still had a theoretical chance of reaching the finals. However, the game ended with a 1-0 defeat, and Norway once again had to stay home.<br /> In addition to the "A" team, Norway also fielded an <span href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic</span> side in the late 1970s. To play for the Olympic side, you had to be an amateur, and not played any World Cup qualifiers. The Olympic side was, in other words, a "B" side, but their matches are nonetheless regarded as full internationals by the NFF (but not recognized by <span href="/wiki/FIFA" title="FIFA">FIFA</span>). The Olympic team got quite good results, and in 1979, they qualified for the <span href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</span> <span href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">Games</span> after beating Finland and <span href="/wiki/Germany_national_football_team" title="Germany national football team">West Germany</span>'s amateur side in the qualifiers. <span href="/wiki/Arne_Larsen_%C3%98kland" title="Arne Larsen Økland">Arne Larsen Økland</span> became the hero with the winning goal against the Germans. Incidentally, Økland became a professional in the <span href="/wiki/Bundesliga_%28football%29" title="Bundesliga (football)">Bundesliga</span> shortly afterwards.<br /> The Olympic side never got the chance to play in the Olympics, because Norway <span href="/wiki/American-led_boycott_of_the_1980_Summer_Olympics" title="American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics">boycotted</span> the games along with the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> and most of the Western European countries as a protest against the Soviet invasion of <span href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</span>.<br /> <span name="1980s"></span><br /> <b> 1970s</b><br /> The 1980s got off to a promising start for Norway with a victory against <span href="/wiki/Bulgaria_national_football_team" title="Bulgaria national football team">Bulgaria</span>. The good run continued with a 6-1 win against Finland (a game where <span href="/wiki/P%C3%A5l_Jacobsen" title="Pål Jacobsen">Pål Jacobsen</span> scored four goals) and victory against Switzerland in a World Cup qualifier. Even a 4-0 loss against <span href="/wiki/England_national_football_team" title="England national football team">England</span> at <span href="/wiki/Wembley_Stadium_%281924%29" title="Wembley Stadium (1924)">Wembley</span> did not kill the optimism, because after all, England were one of the best teams in the world – at least in the eyes of the Norwegian public.<br /> Narrow defeats against <span href="/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team" title="Hungary national football team">Hungary</span> and <span href="/wiki/Romania_national_football_team" title="Romania national football team">Romania</span> in the spring of 1981 ensured that Norway once again failed to reach the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1982" title="Football World Cup 1982">World Cup finals</span>, but they still had pride to play for when England entered <span href="/wiki/Ullevaal_Stadium" title="Ullevaal Stadium">Ullevaal</span> on <span href="/wiki/September_9" title="September 9">September 9</span>, 1981. Norway's previous five encounters against England's full-time pros had all ended with heavy defeats and a combined goal difference of 2-24. Few people believed that trend was about to end that day. The most optimistic pundits hoped for a narrow defeat. In this game, Norway had Tom Lund and the new star <span href="/wiki/Hallvar_Thoresen" title="Hallvar Thoresen">Hallvar Thoresen</span> back in the side. Both had missed the match at Wembley the year before.<br /> The match started badly for Norway. England got off to an early lead through <span href="/wiki/Bryan_Robson" title="Bryan Robson">Bryan Robson</span>, but Norway clawed their way back into the game, and midway through the first half, Norway got an equaliser from a Tom Lund cross. The goal was awarded to <span href="/wiki/Roger_Albertsen" title="Roger Albertsen">Roger Albertsen</span>, but television replays have later shown that Albertsen did in fact not touch the ball, and Lund's cross went straight into the net. When Hallvar Thoresen added a second shortly before half time, the shock was in the making. Despite a heavy English pressure in the second half, Norway held on, and had achieved (in the eyes of the Norwegian media) their greatest result ever. It was after this game that radio commentator <span href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rge_Lillelien" title="Bjørge Lillelien">Bjørge Lillelien</span> gave his famous "Your boys took a hell of a beating" routine.<br /> Led by Tom Lund, Norway had a fairly good team in the early 1980s. In 1982, Norway beat <span href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_national_football_team" title="Yugoslavia national football team">Yugoslavia</span> 3-1 in a <span href="/wiki/1984_European_Football_Championship" title="1984 European Football Championship">Euro 84</span> qualifier with goals by Lund, Økland and current national team boss <span href="/wiki/%C3%85ge_Hareide" title="Åge Hareide">Åge Hareide</span>. At the halfway mark, Norway looked to have a good chance of reaching the European Championship. However, Tom Lund retired at the end of the 1982 season, and without their playmaker, Norway was once again a mediocrity and gained only one point in the remaining Euro qualifiers, and once again finished last in the group.<br /> The Olympic team was also put back together, this time to qualify for the Los Angeles Olympics. Norway only finished third in the group, behind <span href="/wiki/Poland_national_football_team" title="Poland national football team">Poland</span> and the <span href="/wiki/East_Germany_national_football_team" title="East Germany national football team">GDR</span> – but when the <span href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</span> later decided to boycott the <span href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics" title="1984 Summer Olympics">1984 Olympics</span>, Norway were handed the vacant spot. In the finals, Norway gave a pretty good performance. The opening game against <span href="/wiki/Chile_national_football_team" title="Chile national football team">Chile</span> finished goalless, and the second game against <span href="/wiki/France_national_football_team" title="France national football team">France</span> finished with a narrow defeat, which meant that the 2-0 victory in the final game against <span href="/wiki/Qatar_national_football_team" title="Qatar national football team">Qatar</span> was to no avail. Norway were knocked out in the group stage. On the bright side, the Olympic team included several players who would become mainstays in the "A" team in the following years, such as <span href="/wiki/Per_Egil_Ahlsen" title="Per Egil Ahlsen">Per Egil Ahlsen</span>, <span href="/wiki/Terje_Kojedal" title="Terje Kojedal">Terje Kojedal</span>, <span href="/wiki/Tom_Sundby" title="Tom Sundby">Tom Sundby</span> and last but not least goalkeeper <span href="/wiki/Erik_Thorstvedt" title="Erik Thorstvedt">Erik Thorstvedt</span>.<br /> The team got a few more scalps in the mid-1980s. In 1985, Norway won 2-1 away against defending world champions <span href="/wiki/Italy_national_football_team" title="Italy national football team">Italy</span>, and the next spring, future world champions <span href="/wiki/Argentina_national_football_team" title="Argentina national football team">Argentina</span> were defeated 1-0 at Ullevaal. However, both these matches were friendlies, and in the games that really mattered, Norway were still also-rans. A few weeks after the win against Italy, Norway lost 5-1 at home to Denmark in a <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1986" title="Football World Cup 1986">World Cup</span> qualifier. In short, Norway in the 1980s was a team that could beat anyone on a given day, but they could also lose against anyone on a given day – and there were a lot more bad days than good days.<br /> <span name="1990s"></span><br /> <b> 1980s</b><br /> In October 1990, national team coach <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvar_Stadheim&action=edit" class="new" title="Ingvar Stadheim">Ingvar Stadheim</span> resigned after a bad start to the Euro 92 qualifying campaign. His replacement was U21 coach <span href="/wiki/Egil_Roger_Olsen" title="Egil Roger Olsen">Egil "Drillo" Olsen</span>, and this coaching change would signal the start of Norway's best period in modern times. Olsen's style of play may not always have been pretty to watch, and got a lot of criticism both at home and abroad, but the style got results.<br /> In terms of individual players, Norway in the early 1990s was probably not the best team in their history. Only defender <span href="/wiki/Rune_Bratseth" title="Rune Bratseth">Rune Bratseth</span> and goalkeeper Erik Thorstvedt were regarded as true stars on the international level. These two formed the backbone of a side that otherwise included youngsters like <span href="/wiki/%C3%98yvind_Leonhardsen" title="Øyvind Leonhardsen">Øyvind Leonhardsen</span>, <span href="/wiki/Stig_Inge_Bj%C3%B8rnebye" title="Stig Inge Bjørnebye">Stig Inge Bjørnebye</span>, <span href="/wiki/Lars_Bohinen" title="Lars Bohinen">Lars Bohinen</span> and <span href="/wiki/Erik_Mykland" title="Erik Mykland">Erik Mykland</span>.<br /> The first indication that Norway had a great team in the making came in the Euro qualifier against Italy on <span href="/wiki/June_5" title="June 5">June 5</span>, 1991, where goals from Bohinen and <span href="/wiki/Tore_Andr%C3%A9_Dahlum" title="Tore André Dahlum">Tore André Dahlum</span> led the side to a 2-1 win. Earlier that night, the Norwegian U21 side had defeated the Italian youngsters 6-0. Norway failed to reach the <span href="/wiki/1992_European_Football_Championship" title="1992 European Football Championship">European Championship</span> finals, but they remained in contention until the very last game, and finished a respectable third behind <span href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_national_football_team" title="Soviet Union national football team">Soviet Union</span> and Italy.<br /> Towards the end of the Euro qualifiers, Olsen recalled former youth prodigy <span href="/wiki/Kjetil_Rekdal" title="Kjetil Rekdal">Kjetil Rekdal</span>, who had been out of the national team for more than two years after a failed spell in the Bundesliga. As the midfield anchorman, Rekdal would become one of the team's most important players throughout the 1990s.<br /> In the qualifying tournament for the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1994" title="Football World Cup 1994">1994 World Cup</span>, Norway were drawn in the same group as <span href="/wiki/England_national_football_team" title="England national football team">England</span>, <span href="/wiki/Netherlands_national_football_team" title="Netherlands national football team">Holland</span> and <span href="/wiki/Poland_national_football_team" title="Poland national football team">Poland</span>. Getting to the World Cup from this group was impossible, according to the pundits – but Olsen had other ideas. The qualifying campaign got off to a great start with a 10-0 win against minnows <span href="/wiki/San_Marino_national_football_team" title="San Marino national football team">San Marino</span>. This match was followed by a surprising win against Holland, and when Norway managed a draw in the away game against England through Kjetil Rekdal's 35-yard screamer, the Norwegian public were starting to believe that the national team might actually reach the finals.<br /> The road to the World Cup continued in 1993, when Norway won 3-1 against <span href="/wiki/Turkey_national_football_team" title="Turkey national football team">Turkey</span>, followed by a great 2-0 win against England and a somewhat fortunate goalless draw against Holland in Rotterdam. The World Cup tickets were secured on <span href="/wiki/October_13" title="October 13">October 13</span>, when Norway defeated Poland by 3-0 in <span href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</span> after goals by <span href="/wiki/Jostein_Flo" title="Jostein Flo">Jostein Flo</span>, <span href="/wiki/Jan_%C3%85ge_Fj%C3%B8rtoft" title="Jan Åge Fjørtoft">Jan Åge Fjørtoft</span> and <span href="/wiki/Ronny_Johnsen" title="Ronny Johnsen">Ronny Johnsen</span>. Norway had reached the World Cup finals for the first time since 1938. In October 1993, Norway had managed the amazing feat of being ranked the second best team in the world (behind Brazil) on the <span href="/wiki/FIFA_World_Rankings" title="FIFA World Rankings">FIFA World Rankings</span>.<br /> The finals were somewhat of a disappointment for the Norwegian team. The tournament got off to a fine start with a win against <span href="/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team" title="Mexico national football team">Mexico</span> in a match that won't go down in history as a classic. Substitute Kjetil Rekdal scored a late winner. This match was followed by a 0-1, 11-10 men defeat against Italy, and after two games, all four teams in the group had collected three points. This meant that Norway would progress to the next round with a win against the <span href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland_national_football_team" title="Republic of Ireland national football team">Republic of Ireland</span>. They would also progress with a draw if the match between Italy and Mexico got a winner. The match against Ireland ended in a disappointing goalless draw – and since the Italy v Mexico game also ended with a draw, Norway were knocked out by the slimmest of margins.<br /> Next up was the <span href="/wiki/1996_European_Football_Championship" title="1996 European Football Championship">Euro 96</span> qualifiers. Norway looked like qualifying through most of the campaign, but stumbled in the last two games against the <span href="/wiki/Czech_Republic_national_football_team" title="Czech Republic national football team">Czech Republic</span> and Holland, and were knocked out. At this point, Bratseth and Thorstvedt had both retired and been replaced with <span href="/wiki/Henning_Berg" title="Henning Berg">Henning Berg</span> and <span href="/wiki/Frode_Grod%C3%A5s" title="Frode Grodås">Frode Grodås</span> respectively. Two other new faces in the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1998_%28qualification_UEFA%29" title="Football World Cup 1998 (qualification UEFA)">qualifying campaign for the 1998 World Cup</span> were young strikers <span href="/wiki/Tore_Andr%C3%A9_Flo" title="Tore André Flo">Tore André Flo</span> and <span href="/wiki/Ole_Gunnar_Solskj%C3%A6r" title="Ole Gunnar Solskjær">Ole Gunnar Solskjær</span>. Solskjær scored twice in the 5-0 win against <span href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_national_football_team" title="Azerbaijan national football team">Azerbaijan</span>, and was later signed by <span href="/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C." title="Manchester United F.C.">Manchester United F.C.</span>. Flo got his breakthrough on the international stage when he scored twice in the 4-2 friendly win against <span href="/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team" title="Brazil national football team">Brazil</span> at Ullevaal. Norway clinched the World Cup spot with a 4-0 win against Finland two rounds before the end of the qualifying campaign.<br /> Just like 60 years earlier, Norway had reached a <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1998" title="Football World Cup 1998">World Cup</span> played in <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span>. History would repeat itself in more ways. Just like in the last World Cup, Norway were unimpressive in the opening matches. The first two matches against <span href="/wiki/Morocco_national_football_team" title="Morocco national football team">Morocco</span> and <span href="/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team" title="Scotland national football team">Scotland</span> ended with draws, which meant that Norway faced the difficult task of beating Brazil if they were to advance to the second round.<br /> "<span href="/wiki/June_23" title="June 23">June 23</span> 1998" and <span href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</span> will always be remembered as the date and venue of one of Norway's greatest victories. Brazil did have most of the attacking play, and when <span href="/wiki/Bebeto" title="Bebeto">Bebeto</span> gave the Brazilians the lead after 78 minutes, it looked like Norway were heading for another early exit. However, a few minutes, Tore André Flo got an equalizer, and when Flo was obstructed in the area two minutes before the final whistle, Norway got a penalty. Kjetil Rekdal fired the penalty into the back of the net. Norway had come from behind to win against Brazil, and advanced to the second round – once again in Marseille, and once again against Italy.<br /> The match against the Italians was a disappointing performance from the Norwegians. Italy got an early lead through <span href="/wiki/Christian_Vieri" title="Christian Vieri">Christian Vieri</span>, and Norway rarely threatened the solid Italian defence – and just like in 1938, Norway were knocked out of the World Cup by Italy. After the tournament, Egil Olsen stepped down as national team coach and was replaced by his assistant <span href="/wiki/Nils_Johan_Semb" title="Nils Johan Semb">Nils Johan Semb</span>.<br /> <span name="2000s"></span><br /> <b> 1990s</b><br /> Semb's style of play was roughly the same as his predecessor's, although new players like <span href="/wiki/Steffen_Iversen" title="Steffen Iversen">Steffen Iversen</span>, <span href="/wiki/John_Carew" title="John Carew">John Carew</span> and <span href="/wiki/John_Arne_Riise" title="John Arne Riise">John Arne Riise</span> were added. After a slow start to the <span href="/wiki/2000_UEFA_European_Football_Championship" title="2000 UEFA European Football Championship">Euro 2000</span> qualifying campaign, Norway won their last seven games and reached the European Championship finals for the first time in their history. The finals started well, but ended with disappointment. In the opener, Norway got a deserved win against <span href="/wiki/Spain_national_football_team" title="Spain national football team">Spain</span> through Steffen Iversen's goal. In the second match, Norway played poorly and lost 1-0 against <span href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_national_football_team" title="Yugoslavia national football team">Yugoslavia</span>, but Norway would still qualify for the second round if they could win their last group match against <span href="/wiki/Slovenia_national_football_team" title="Slovenia national football team">Slovenia</span>. A draw would also be good enough if the match between Spain and Yugoslavia ended with a draw or a Yugoslavia win.<br /> In what must be described as an awful match, the game between Norway and Slovenia ended goalless. In the other match, Yugoslavia had a 3-2 lead after 90 minutes, which would be enough for Norway to advance. However, when Spain scored twice in stoppage time to win the game, Norway were knocked out. After the tournament, Semb had to suffer a lot of criticism for his tactics.<br /> A slow start to the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_2002" title="Football World Cup 2002">2002 World Cup</span> qualifiers did not stop the criticism. After five games, Norway had gained only two points, and after a decade of glory, it became clear that Norway would not reach the finals in <span href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">Korea</span> and <span href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</span>. Norway did finish the qualifying campaign with three straight wins, but it was too little, too late.<br /> Despite the ever-increasing criticism, Semb remained in charge for the <span href="/wiki/2004_UEFA_European_Championship_%28qualifying%29" title="2004 UEFA European Championship (qualifying)">Euro 2004</span> qualifiers, where Norway eventually finished second behind <span href="/wiki/Denmark_national_football_team" title="Denmark national football team">Denmark</span>, and faced a two-leg playoff against Spain. In the away leg, Norway got a respectable 2-1 defeat, which provided some cautious optimism before the return leg at Ullevaal. However, the return leg was a nightmare for the Norwegians. Spain dominated the game completely and won 3-0. After this match, Semb resigned.<br /> Norway's next national coach became former national team hero <span href="/wiki/%C3%85ge_Hareide" title="Åge Hareide">Åge Hareide</span>, who was hired in January 2004, having coached <span href="/wiki/Rosenborg_B.K." title="Rosenborg B.K.">Rosenborg B.K.</span> to the domestic league title the previous season. The team, which was dubbed "New Norway", won their first six games, although it must be said that many of these games were against second-rate opposition. In the <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_2006" title="Football World Cup 2006">2006 World Cup</span> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_2006_%28qualification%29" title="Football World Cup 2006 (qualification)">qualifying</span> campaign, results have been varying – ranging from an impressive 3-0 win against Slovenia to a disappointing home defeat against Scotland. Norway eventually finished second behind Italy, and played the <span href="/wiki/Czech_Republic_national_football_team" title="Czech Republic national football team">Czech Republic</span> in a playoff to reach the finals. In the first playoff match the Czech Republic won 1-0 in Oslo. Norway lost the match in <span href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</span> <span href="/wiki/November_16" title="November 16">November 16</span> 2005 0-1, thus failing to make it to the <span href="/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup" title="2006 FIFA World Cup">2006 World Cup</span>.<br /> On the <span href="/wiki/August_16" title="August 16">16 August</span>, Norway faced Brazil in a friendly match at Ullevaal Stadium. The game ended 1-1 and Norway remained unbeaten by the Brazilians. A successful start to to the <span href="/wiki/2008_UEFA_European_Football_Championship" title="2008 UEFA European Football Championship">Euro 2008</span> <span href="/wiki/2008_UEFA_European_Football_Championship_qualifying" title="2008 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying">qualifiers</span> followed, breaking a run of eight games without victory, as Norway won 4-1 in Hungary, their largest away win in a qualifier since October 2001, before beating Moldova 2-0 at home to top the group after two games. However on <span href="/wiki/October_7" title="October 7">7 October</span> Norway were beaten away 1-0 by <span href="/wiki/Greece_national_football_team" title="Greece national football team">Greece</span>, making their group closer again, and with a 1-2 loss to <span href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_national_football_team" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span> and a 2-2 tie with <span href="/wiki/Turkey_national_football_team" title="Turkey national football team">Turkey</span> in the two first qualifying matches in 2007, Norway lost important points. The team improved with two home ground 4-0 wins in a row, against <span href="/wiki/Malta_national_football_team" title="Malta national football team">Malta</span> and Hungary in early June, and is now on fourth place in its group, five points behind first place Greece and with the same number of points as second and third places Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkey.<br /> <span name="World_Cup_record" id="World_Cup_record"></span><br /> <b> 2000s</b><br /> <span name="European_Championship_record" id="European_Championship_record"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1930" title="Football World Cup 1930">1930</span> - <i>Did not enter</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1934" title="Football World Cup 1934">1934</span> - <i>Did not enter</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1938" title="Football World Cup 1938">1938</span> - Round 1<br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1950" title="Football World Cup 1950">1950</span> - <i>Did not enter</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1954" title="Football World Cup 1954">1954</span> to <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1990" title="Football World Cup 1990">1990</span> - <i>Did not qualify</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1994" title="Football World Cup 1994">1994</span> - Round 1<br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_1998" title="Football World Cup 1998">1998</span> - Round 2<br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_2002" title="Football World Cup 2002">2002</span> - <i>Did not qualify</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/Football_World_Cup_2006" title="Football World Cup 2006">2006</span> - <i>Did not qualify</i> <b> World Cup record</b><br /> <span name="Team_records" id="Team_records"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/1960_European_Football_Championship" title="1960 European Football Championship">1960</span> to <span href="/wiki/1996_European_Football_Championship" title="1996 European Football Championship">1996</span> - <i>Did not qualify</i><br /> <span href="/wiki/2000_European_Football_Championship" title="2000 European Football Championship">2000</span> - Round 1<br /> <span href="/wiki/2004_European_Football_Championship" title="2004 European Football Championship">2004</span> - <i>Did not qualify</i> <b> European Championship record</b><br /> <br /> <b> Team records</b><br /> <br /> <b> Most capped players</b><br /> <span name="Norway_managers" id="Norway_managers"></span><br /> <b> Top goalscorers</b><br /> <span name="Current_players" id="Current_players"></span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Willibald_Hahn&action=edit" class="new" title="Willibald Hahn">Willibald Hahn</span> 1953-1955<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ron_Lewin&action=edit" class="new" title="Ron Lewin">Ron Lewin</span> 1956-1957<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Edmund_Majowsky&action=edit" class="new" title="Edmund Majowsky">Edmund Majowsky</span> 1958<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ragnar_Nikolai_Larsen&action=edit" class="new" title="Ragnar Nikolai Larsen">Ragnar Nikolai Larsen</span> 1958<br /> <span href="/wiki/Kristian_Henriksen" title="Kristian Henriksen">Kristian Henriksen</span> 1959<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_Kment&action=edit" class="new" title="Wilhelm Kment">Wilhelm Kment</span> 1960-1962<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ragnar_Nikolai_Larsen&action=edit" class="new" title="Ragnar Nikolai Larsen">Ragnar Nikolai Larsen</span> 1962-1966<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_Kment&action=edit" class="new" title="Wilhelm Kment">Wilhelm Kment</span> 1967-1969<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%98ivind_Johannessen&action=edit" class="new" title="Øivind Johannessen">Øivind Johannessen</span> 1970-1971<br /> <span href="/wiki/George_Curtis_%28footballer_born_1919%29" title="George Curtis (footballer born 1919)">George Curtis</span> 1972-1974<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Kjell_Schou-Andreassen&action=edit" class="new" title="Kjell Schou-Andreassen">Kjell Schou-Andreassen</span> and <span href="/wiki/Nils_Arne_Eggen" title="Nils Arne Eggen">Nils Arne Eggen</span> 1975-1977<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Tor_R%C3%B8ste_Fossen&action=edit" class="new" title="Tor Røste Fossen">Tor Røste Fossen</span> 1978-1987<br /> <span href="/wiki/Tord_Grip" title="Tord Grip">Tord Grip</span> 1987-1988<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvar_Stadheim&action=edit" class="new" title="Ingvar Stadheim">Ingvar Stadheim</span> 1988-1990<br /> <span href="/wiki/Egil_Roger_Olsen" title="Egil Roger Olsen">Egil "Drillo" Olsen</span> 1990-1998<br /> <span href="/wiki/Nils_Johan_Semb" title="Nils Johan Semb">Nils Johan Semb</span> 1998-2003<br /> <span href="/wiki/%C3%85ge_Hareide" title="Åge Hareide">Åge Hareide</span> 2003-present <b> Norway managers</b><br /> <span name="Current_squad" id="Current_squad"></span><br /> <b> Current players</b><br /> The following players were called up for the matches against <span href="/wiki/Malta_national_football_team" title="Malta national football team">Malta</span> and <span href="/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team" title="Hungary national football team">Hungary</span> in June 2007. The list also includes players that were called up, but withdrew from the squad.<br /> <span name="Recent_call-ups" id="Recent_call-ups"></span><br /> <b> Current squad</b><br /> The following players have been called up since January 30, 2007.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2926324094676595338.post-20772500302263981412007-11-12T08:23:00.001-08:002007-11-12T08:23:22.733-08:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Ido</b> (<span href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">pronounced</span> <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/idɔ/</span>) is a <span href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">constructed language</span> created with the goal of becoming a universal second language for speakers of different linguistic backgrounds as a language easier to learn than ethnic languages. This intended usage parallels the current use of <span href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</span> as a <span href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</span>, and of <span href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</span>, <span href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</span> in earlier eras. Unlike English, which is a natural and frequently irregular language, Ido was specifically designed for <span href="/wiki/Grammatical" title="Grammatical">grammatical</span>, <span href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthographic</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Lexicographical" title="Lexicographical">lexicographical</span> regularity, and to favor no one who might otherwise be advantaged in a situation due to native fluency in a widespread language. In this sense, Ido is classified as a consciously created <span href="/wiki/International_Auxiliary_Language" title="International Auxiliary Language">International Auxiliary Language</span> (conIAL). Of the most widely used conIALs, the first one is <span href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</span>, Ido's predecessor; it is disputable whether the second place in usage goes to Ido or <span href="/wiki/Interlingua" title="Interlingua">Interlingua</span>.<br /> Ido was developed in the early 1900s, and retains a sizable following today, primarily in <span href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</span>. It is largely based on Esperanto, created by <span href="/wiki/L._L._Zamenhof" title="L. L. Zamenhof">L. L. Zamenhof</span>. Ido first appeared in 1907 as a result of a desire to reform perceived flaws in Esperanto that some of its supporters believed to be a hindrance in its propagation as an easy-to-learn second language. Many other reform projects appeared after Ido: examples such as <span href="/wiki/Occidental_language" title="Occidental language">Occidental</span> and <span href="/wiki/Novial" title="Novial">Novial</span> appeared afterwards but have since faded into obscurity. At present, Ido along with Esperanto and <span href="/wiki/Interlingua" title="Interlingua">Interlingua</span> are the only auxiliary languages with a large body of literature and a relatively large speaker base. The name of the language likely traces its origin to the Ido pronunciation of "I.D." (from "International Delegation", see below) or the word <i><span href="/wiki/Esperantido" title="Esperantido">esperantido</span></i>, "descendant (of Esperanto)". Or, as with the case of "Esperanto", it could simply be adopted from the pseudonym its designer (Louis Couturat) used in presenting the language to the Delegation Committee. In IDO, it is simply an abbreviation of <i>Idiomo Di Omni</i> (language for all).<br /> Ido uses the 26 Latin letters used in the <span href="/wiki/English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">English alphabet</span> with no <span href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</span>. While still being completely morphologically regular, Ido resembles the <span href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</span> in appearance and is sometimes mistaken for <span href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</span> or <span href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</span> at first glance. Ido is largely intelligible to those who have studied Esperanto, though there are certain differences in word formation, grammar and grammatical-function words that make it more than a simple reform project. Ido is a stand-alone language.<br /> After its inception, Ido gained support (estimates generally range around 20%) from some in the Esperanto community at the time, but following the sudden death in 1914 of one of its most influential proponents, <span href="/wiki/Louis_Couturat" title="Louis Couturat">Louis Couturat</span>, it declined in popularity. There were two reasons for this: first, the emergence of further schisms arising from competing reform projects; and second, a general lack of awareness of Ido as a candidate for an international language. These obstacles weakened the movement and it was not until the rise of the Internet that it began to regain its former momentum.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <b> History</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Esperanto_and_Ido_compared" title="Esperanto and Ido compared">Esperanto and Ido compared</span></i> <b> Comparison with Esperanto</b><br /> Ido has the same typical five-vowel system (a, e, i, o, u have their <span href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</span> values) as Esperanto, and most of the same consonants, omitting two consonant <span href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</span> used by Esperanto, IPA <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/x/</span> and <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʤ/</span>. (The distinctions between <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/x/ : /h/</span> and between <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">/ʤ/ : /ʒ/</span> carry a very low functional load in Esperanto, and so were deemed to be unnecessary in Ido.) Without those two consonant phonemes, the consonants in the language are as follows:<br /> The accent rule in Ido is regular, but slightly more complex than that of Esperanto: all polysyllables are stressed on the penultimate (second from last) syllable except for verb <span href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitives</span>, which are stressed on the ultimate syllable—<b>sko</b>lo, ka<b>fe</b>o and <b>ler</b>nas for "school", "coffee" and "learn", but i<b>rar</b>, sa<b>var</b> and drin<b>kar</b> for "to go", "to know" and "to drink". If an <b>i</b> or <b>u</b> precedes another vowel, the pair is considered part of the same syllable when applying the accent rule—thus <b>ra</b>dio, fa<b>mi</b>lio and <b>ma</b>nuo for "radio", "family" and "hand".<br /> <span name="Grammar" id="Grammar"></span><br /> <b> Phonology</b><br /> Each word in the Ido vocabulary is built from a root word. A word consists of a root and a grammatical ending. Other words can be formed from that word by removing the grammatical ending and adding a new one, or by inserting certain <span href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</span> between the root and the grammatical ending. As with Esperanto, Ido is grammatically invariable; there are no exceptions in Ido, unlike in natural languages.<br /> Some of the grammatical endings are defined as follows:<br /> These are the same as in Esperanto except for <i>-i</i>, <i>-ir</i>, <i>-ar</i>, <i>-or</i> and <i>-ez</i>. Esperanto marks noun plurals by an <i>agglutinative</i> ending <i>-j</i> (so plural nouns end in <i>-oj</i>), uses <i>-i</i> for verb infinitives (Esperanto infinitives are tenseless), and uses <i>-u</i> for the imperative. Verbs in Ido do not conjugate depending on person, number or gender; the -<b>as</b>, -<b>is</b>, and -<b>os</b> endings suffice whether the subject is I, you, he, she, they, or anything else.<br /> <span name="Syntax" id="Syntax"></span><br /> <b> Grammar</b><br /> Ido word order is generally the same as English (<span href="/wiki/Subject_verb_object" title="Subject verb object">subject verb object</span>), so the sentence <i>Me havas la blua libro</i> is the same as the English "I have the blue book", both in meaning and word order. There are a few differences, however:<br /> Negation occurs in Ido by simply affixing <b>ne</b> to the front of a verb: <b>Me ne havas libro</b> means, "I do not have a book". This as well does not vary, and thus the "I do not", "He does not", "They do not" before a verb are simply <b>Me ne</b>, <b>Il ne</b>, and <b>Li ne</b>. In the same way, past tense and future tense negatives are formed by <b>ne</b> in front of the conjugated verb. "I will not go" and "I did not go" become <b>Me ne iros</b> and <b>Me ne iris</b> respectively.<br /> Yes/no questions are formed by the particle <b>ka</b> in front of the question. "I have a book" (me havas libro) becomes <b>Ka me havas libro?</b> (do I have a book?). <b>Ka</b> can also be placed in front of a noun without a verb to make a simple question, corresponding to the English "is it?" <b>Ka Mark?</b> can mean, "Are you Mark?", "Is it Mark?", "Do you mean Mark?" depending on the context.<br /> <span name="Pronouns" id="Pronouns"></span><br /> Adjectives can be written either before the noun as in English, or after the noun as in <span href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</span>. Thus, <i>Me havas la libro blua</i> is also permissible.<br /> Ido has the optional -n accusative ending that is used when the object of the sentence is not clear, or it may be used to alter word order when desired. <i>La blua libron me havas</i> is another acceptable way of saying the same thing. <b> Syntax</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</span> of Ido were revised to make them more acoustically distinct than those of Esperanto, which all end in <i>i</i>. Especially the singular and plural first-person pronouns <i>mi</i> and <i>ni</i> may be difficult to distinguish in a noisy environment, so Ido has <i>me</i> and <i>ni</i> instead. Ido also distinguishes between <span href="/wiki/T-V_distinction" title="T-V distinction">intimate (<i>tu</i>) and formal (<i>vu</i>)</span> second-person singular pronouns as well as plural second-person pronouns (<i>vi</i>) not marked for intimacy. Furthermore, Ido has a pan-gender third-person pronoun <i>lu</i> (it can mean "he", "she", or "it", depending on the context) in addition to its masculine (<i>il</i>), feminine (<i>el</i>), and neuter (<i>ol</i>) third-person pronouns.<br /> <small>¹ <i>ci</i>, while technically the familiar form of the word "you" in Esperanto, is almost never used. Results on Google have shown that while <i>tu</i> is only slightly less common than <i>vu</i> in Ido, <i>ci</i> is used less than half of one percent of the amount <i>vi</i> is in Esperanto. Esperanto's inventor himself did not include the pronoun in the first book on Esperanto and only later reluctantly; later he recommended against using <i>ci</i> on the grounds that different cultures have conflicting traditions regarding the use of the familiar and formal forms of "you", and that a universal language should avoid the problem by simply using the formal form in all situations. Unlike some other languages that use a formal second person pronoun, <i>vi</i> is not capitalized.</small><br /> <small>² <i>tiu</i>, though not a pronoun, is usually used in this circumstance, because many people have a hard time applying "it" to humans.</small><br /> It should be noted that <i>ol</i>, like English <i>it</i> and Esperanto <i>ĝi</i>, is not limited to inanimate objects, but can be used "for entities whose sex is indeterminate: <i>babies, children, humans, youths, elders, people, individuals, horses, cows, cats,</i> etc."<br /> <i>Lu</i> is often mistakenly labeled an <span href="/wiki/Epicene" title="Epicene">epicene</span> pronoun, that is, one that refers to both masculine and feminine beings, but in fact, <i>lu</i> is more properly a "pan-gender" pronoun, as it is also used for referring to inanimate objects. From <i>Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido</i> by Beaufront:<br /> <small><i>Lu</i> (like <i>li</i>) is used <i>for all three genders.</i> That <i>lu</i> does duty for the three genders at will in the singular is not in itself any more astonishing than seeing <i>li</i> serve the three genders at will in the plural ... By a decision (1558) the Idist Academy rejected every restriction concerning the use of <i>lu.</i> One may thus use that pronoun in exactly the same way for a thing and a person of obvious sex as for animals of unknown sex and a person that has a genderless name, like <i>baby, child, human,</i> etc., these being as truly masculine as feminine.</small><br /> <small>The motives for this decision were given in "Mondo", XI, 68: <i>Lu</i> for the singular is exactly the same as <i>li</i> for the plural. Logic, symmetry and ease demand this. Consequently, just as <i>li</i> may be used for people, animals, and things whenever nothing obliges one to express the gender, so <i>lu</i> may be used for people, animals, and things under the same condition. The proposed distinction would be a bothersome subtlety...</small><br /> <span name="Vocabulary" id="Vocabulary"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.jetpackmule.com/shop/images/L_IDO-GT1L.jpg" alt="Ido language" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Pronouns</b><br /> Vocabulary in Ido is based on words intended to give the greatest facility to the most speakers. Early on, the first 5000+ roots were analyzed compared to the vocabulary of English, French, Spanish, German, Russian and Italian, and the following result was found: Adoption of a word is done through consensus, after which the word will be made official by the <span href="/wiki/Uniono_por_la_Linguo_Internaciona_Ido" title="Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido">union</span>. Care must also be taken to avoid <span href="/wiki/Homonym" title="Homonym">homonyms</span> if possible, and usually a new word undergoes some discussion before being adopted. Foreign words that have a restricted sense and are not likely to be used in everyday life (such as the word <i><span href="/wiki/Intifada" title="Intifada">intifada</span></i> to refer to the conflict between <span href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</span> and <span href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" title="Palestinian territories">Palestine</span>) are left untouched, and often written in italics.<br /> <span name="Ido-speaking_community" id="Ido-speaking_community"></span><br /> 2024 roots (38%) belong to 6 languages<br /> 942 roots (17%) belong to 5 languages<br /> 1111 roots (21%) belong to 4 languages<br /> 585 roots (11%) belong to 3 languages<br /> 454 roots (8%) belong to 2 languages<br /> 255 roots (5%) belong to 1 language<br /> <ul><br /> <li>Total 5371 100%<br /> French 4880: 91%<br /> Italian 4454: 83%<br /> Spanish 4237: 79%<br /> English 4219: 79%<br /> German 3302: 61%<br /> Russian 2821: 52%<br /> The diminutive suffix <b>-et-</b>. <b>Domo</b> (house) becomes <b>dometo</b> (cottage), and <b>libro</b> (book) becomes <b>libreto</b> (novelette or short story).<br /> The pejorative suffix <b>-ach-</b>. <b>Domo</b> becomes <b>domacho</b> (hovel), and <b>libro</b> becomes <b>libracho</b> (a shoddy piece of work, pulp fiction, etc.)<br /> The prefix <b>retro-</b>, which implies a reversal. <b>Irar</b> (to go) becomes <b>retroirar</b> (to go back, backward) and <b>venar</b> (to come) becomes <b>retrovenar</b> (to return). <b> Vocabulary</b><br /> As with all constructed languages, gauging the number of speakers of Ido is an extremely difficult task. <span href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</span> postings by the prominent Esperantist <span href="/wiki/Don_Harlow" title="Don Harlow">Don Harlow</span> have estimated the population at being somewhere in the thousands, but no accurate numbers exist. Moreover, given the often political IAL environment in which those that speak a language are not merely language users but adherents to its system and linguistic philosophy as well, there are two categories of those that know the language, Ido <i>speakers</i> and Ido <i>supporters</i>. Ido resembles Esperanto to a large extent, and many Esperantists have learned Ido out of curiosity while still not using it, preferring to support the more well-known Esperanto movement instead. On one Esperanto bulletin board was written the following:<br /> Mi provis Idon antaŭ Esperanto, kaj alvenis konklude: la diferoj estas efike trivialaj, komparite al pli gravaj koncernaĵoj (kiujn mi ne detalos ĉi tie). Pro tio mi elektis subteni Esperanton, kaj ne subteni Idon, kvankam eble mi lernos Idon por hobio. Tamen via id-vortoj estas bone komprenebla al mi, kaj mi uzus Idon, se ne ekzistis tre pli subtenita lingvo.<br /> I tried Ido before Esperanto, and came to conclude that the differences are in fact trivial, compared to larger concerns (that I will not go into detail about here). For that <i>[the larger speaker community and volume of material]</i> I chose to support Esperanto and not to support Ido, though maybe I will learn Ido as a hobby. However, your writing in Ido <i>[responding to an Ido speaker]</i> is comprehensible to me, and I would use Ido if there did not exist a much more supported language.<br /> It is possible to find discussions of this nature on the Internet in English, Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua and other IALs, each understanding the other with little problem.<br /> A small sample of 24 Idists on the <span href="/wiki/Yahoo%21" title="Yahoo!">Yahoo!</span> group <i>Idolisto</i> during late 2005 showed that 57% had begun their studies of the language during the past three years, 32% from the mid-1990s to 2002, and 8% had known the language from before.<br /> <span name="Language_examples" id="Language_examples"></span><br /> <b> Ido-speaking community</b><br /> <span name="La_Princeto_.28The_Little_Prince.29" id="La_Princeto_.28The_Little_Prince.29"></span><br /> <b> La Princeto (The Little Prince)</b><br /> Translation of tune by Russian bard <span href="/w/index.php?title=Alexandr_Sukhanov&action=edit" class="new" title="Alexandr Sukhanov">Alexandr Sukhanov</span> from verses by Russian poet <span href="/wiki/Yunna_Morits" title="Yunna Morits">Yunna Morits</span>. (<span href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Meahorizonto.ogg" class="internal" title="Meahorizonto.ogg">listen</span>)<br /> Me nule savas la Angla, la Franca, la Greka,<br /> Mea vid-cirklo do restas sat mikra e streta -<br /> En mea vid-cirklo trovesas nur flori, arbori,<br /> Nur tero e maro, aero, fairo, amoro.<br /> Me nule savas la Dana e la Portugala,<br /> Mea vid-cirklo restas sat infantala -<br /> Nur joyi rapide pasant', bruligiva aflikto,<br /> Nur esperi, e timi noktal' es en mea vid-cirklo.<br /> Me savas nek la Sanskrito e nek la Latina,<br /> Mea vid-cirklo es ancien-mod' quale tino<br /> Nur morto e nasko homala, nur grani ed astri<br /> Aden mea vid-cirklo penetras e standas sat mastre.<br /> Mea savo artala esas fakultativa.<br /> Mea vid-cirklo restas presk' primitiva -<br /> En olu es nia afero intima, interna<br /> Por ke kun homaro la Tero flugadez eterne.<br /> Mea vid-cirklon restriktas nur timi, esperi,<br /> En olu trovesas nur amo, nur maro e tero.<br /> Aden mea vid-cirklo penetras e standas sat mastre<br /> Nur morto e nasko homala, nur grani ed astri.<br /> <span name="Literature_and_publications" id="Literature_and_publications"></span><br /> <b> Mea vido-cirklo (horizonto)</b><br /> Ido has a number of publications that can be subscribed to or downloaded for free in most cases. <i>Kuriero Internaciona</i> is a magazine produced in France every few months with a range of topics. <i>Adavane!</i> is a magazine produced by the Spanish Ido Society every two months that has a range of topics, as well as a few dozen pages of work translated from other languages. <i>Progreso</i> is the official organ of the Ido movement and has been around since the inception of the movement in 1908. Other sites can be found with various stories, fables or proverbs along with a few books of the Bible translated into Ido on a smaller scale. The site <i>publikaji</i> has a few podcasts in Ido along with various songs and other recorded material.<br /> The online encyclopedia <span href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</span> includes an <span href="http://io.wikipedia.org" class="external text" title="http://io.wikipedia.org" rel="nofollow">Ido-language edition</span> (known in Ido as <i>Wikipedio</i>); <span href="/wiki/As_of_2006" title="As of 2006">as of December</span>, it has over 14,000 articles.<br /> <span name="Recent_and_upcoming_international_Ido_conventions" id="Recent_and_upcoming_international_Ido_conventions"></span><br /> <b> Literature and publications</b><br /> <span name="References_and_notes" id="References_and_notes"></span><br /> <b>2007:</b> <span href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</span>, <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span> (<span href="http://www.ido.li/Idorenkontro2007/" class="external text" title="http://www.ido.li/Idorenkontro2007/" rel="nofollow">Information</span>)<br /> <b>2006:</b> <span href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</span>, <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</span>, approx. 25 participants from 10 countries (<span href="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idorenkontro2006/idoindex.html" class="external text" title="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idorenkontro2006/idoindex.html" rel="nofollow">Raporto</span>)<br /> <b>2005:</b> <span href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</span>, France, 13 participants from 4 countries (<span href="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Francia/Idorenkontro2005/" class="external text" title="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Francia/Idorenkontro2005/" rel="nofollow">Raporto</span>)<br /> <b>2004:</b> <span href="/wiki/Kiev" title="Kiev">Kiev</span>, <span href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</span>, 17 participants from 9 countries (<span href="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Ukrainia/Idorenkontro2004/" class="external text" title="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Ukrainia/Idorenkontro2004/" rel="nofollow">Raporto</span>)<br /> <b>2003:</b> Grossbothen, <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</span>, Participants from 6 countries (<span href="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idokonfero2003/ido.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idokonfero2003/ido.htm" rel="nofollow">Raporto</span>)<br /> <b>2002:</b> <span href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</span>, <span href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</span>, 14 participants from 6 countries (<span href="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Polonia/krakow2002.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Polonia/krakow2002.htm" rel="nofollow">Raporto</span>)<br /> <b>2001:</b> <span href="/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg" title="Nürnberg">Nürnberg</span>, Germany, 14 participants from 5 countries (<span href="http://www.nefkom.net/frank.kasper/konf2001.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.nefkom.net/frank.kasper/konf2001.htm" rel="nofollow">Raporto</span>)<br /> <b>1998:</b> Białobrzegi, Poland, 15 participants from 6 countries<br /> <b>1997:</b> Bakkum (mun. <span href="/wiki/Castricum" title="Castricum">Castricum</span>), <span href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</span>, 19 participants from 7 countries<br /> <b>1995:</b> Elsnigk, Germany<br /> <b>1991:</b> <span href="/wiki/Ostend" title="Ostend">Ostend</span>, <span href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</span>, 21 participants<br /> <b>1980:</b> <span href="/wiki/Namur_%28city%29" title="Namur (city)">Namur</span>, Belgium, 35 participants<br /> <b>1960:</b> <span href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" title="Zürich">Zürich</span>, <span href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</span>, ca. 50 participants <b> Overview and answers to common questions</b><br /> <span name="Pages_in_Ido_and_places_to_learn_the_language" id="Pages_in_Ido_and_places_to_learn_the_language"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/ido.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/ido.htm" rel="nofollow">Langmaker.com about Ido</span><br /> <span href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html" class="external text" title="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html" rel="nofollow">Otto Jespersen's history of Ido</span><br /> <span href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/PALih.html" class="external text" title="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/PALih.html" rel="nofollow">Another history of Ido</span><br /> <span href="http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/Historio/raporto.LK.1908.html" class="external text" title="http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/Historio/raporto.LK.1908.html" rel="nofollow">Emile Boirac's "Report to the World Esperanto Congress, 1908"</span> about his experiences as part of the Delegation's Committee<br /> <span href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/truth.html" class="external text" title="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/truth.html" rel="nofollow">Léopold Leau's "The Truth About the Delegation in 1907"</span>, a rebuttal of criticisms made about the events of the Delegation, based on his own experiences as a member of the Delegation<br /> <span href="http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/chap03.html#ido" class="external text" title="http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/chap03.html#ido" rel="nofollow">"How to Build a Language", the section about Ido</span>, and <span href="http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/conlang1a.html" class="external text" title="http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/conlang1a.html" rel="nofollow">"Ido: The Beginning"</span> by Don Harlow<br /> <span href="http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/ido" class="external text" title="http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/ido" rel="nofollow">Ido-Pagino da Ailanto</span> - Discussion about Ido, links to websites, organizations, mailing lists, courses, dictionaries, grammars, etc.<br /> <span href="http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aido.html" class="external text" title="http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aido.html" rel="nofollow">Blueprints for Babel: Ido</span> - Commentary and grammatical summary of Ido, with glossary and links misacyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06932849470196981184noreply@blogger.com0